
Glass. 
Book. 



'E£iioi_ 



• Kip 




l:a<ffiaMa.5^^;iNfflayi&';5iM!il.->ii^ 



y; 



STUDIED. Bfl 



KIRKHAM'S GRAMMAR. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR,_^^ 

FAMILIAR LECTURES; 

ACCOMPAl!rrED BY 

A COMPENDIUM, 



EiIBRACI2fa 



A NEW SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING, A NEW SYSTEM OF PUNCTU- 
ATION, EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX, 



A SYSTEM OF PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR, 

IN" NOTES, 

TO WHICH ARE ADDED, 

AN APPEOT)IX AND A KEY TO THE EXERCISES, 

DESIGNED 

FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS AND PRIVATE LEARNERS. 



BY SAMUEL KIRKHAM. 



NEW EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS. 

NEW YORK: 
COLLINS & BROTHER, 

82 "WARREN STREET, 




/ ?-i7; 



TE 






Ente. 5 to Act of Congress, in the year 1829, by 

oA.»IUEL KIEKHAM, 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 



NEW EDITION, 
Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1857, by 
HARPEK & BEOTHEES, 
In the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the Southern District of New York. 



PUBLISHERS' ADVERTISEMENT. 



Although many years ha-ve now elapsed since the first publication 
of Kirkham's Grammar, and very many rival treatises have been issued 
from the press, this work still continues to be a favorite with the com- 
munity. In the simplicity of the style, and the clear manner in whiek 
the subject is explained to the pupil, points of the greatest importance 
in a treatise of this nature, this work has not been surpassed. 

The publishers have endeavored from time to time to make such al- 
terations as the advance in philological learning has brought to light ; 
but in the general scope and treatment of the subject they have found 
no reason to deviate from the original plan of the work. 

In the present edition they have thought it advisable to omit the 
*^ Corrections" and " Provinciahsms" heretofore printed on pp, 200 to 
208 inclusive, and which, however valuable at the time they were intro- 
duced into the work, at the present seemed ratiier to perpetuate the 
memory of obsolete errors than to serve a useful purposa The general 
diffusion of knowledge has led to the disuse of these " provincialisms," 
and the almost universal study of the Dictionary in our schools has su- 
perseded the necessity of these Corrections in Ortiiography and Ortho- 
epy in a vf ork on Grammar, 

The attention of both teacher and pupil is earnestly desked to the 
valuable addition to the article on Rhetoric in this volume, now first 
introduced, from the pen of the distinguished author. Prof, A. Mills. 
It is hoped that the perusal of this elegant essay "On beauty and 
sublimity in writing" will excite an interest in the study of Ehetoric, a 
subject too much neglected in our educational institutions. The reader 
is invited to the advertisement on the following page, 

InTew Yoek, July, las'?. 



TO TEACHERS. 



Maut teachers, after accompanying their pmpils through a course of Englisli 
Grrammar, have felt the want of some further treatise upon language, of a text- 
book which shall give instruction upon the important subject of Khetoric and 
Belles-lettres in greater detail than it is possible to do within the limits of a 
purely grammatical work. To such we would offer the work of Prof Mills, 
*' The Outhnes of Rhetoric and Belles-lettres," an elegant and comprehen- 
sive summary of this important and interesting subject. 

Prof Mills has carefully adhered to the principles of Aristotle, Longinus, 
and Quintilian, so far as they are apphcable to the Enghsh language ; and has 
adopted these principles, as they are developed in the large work of Dr. Blair. 
Commencing, after a brief view of the principles of taste, with the origin of 
language, he has endeavored to conduct the student through the various de- 
partments of this study, in the order which nature herself indicates, until he 
reaches the most elevated and sublime strains of the epic and dramatic muse. 

We give below the table of contents. 

Chapter I. Language.— § I. Origin and Progress of Language — § II. Origin and Prog- 
ress of Writing. — § III. Structure of Language. — § IV. Structure of Language. 

C>^apter II. Style. — § 1, Perspicuity and Precision.— § II. Structure of Sentences. — 
§ III. Structure of Sentences. — § IV. Structure of Sentences. 

Chapter III. Figurative Language. — § I. Origin and Nature of Figurative Language. 
— § II. Metaphor — Allegory. — § III. Hyperbole— Personification — Apostrophe. — § IV 
Comparison — Antithesis — InteiTogation — Exclamation — Vision — Climax — Irony. — § V. 
General Character of Style. 

Chapter IV. The Components or a Eegular Biscouese. — § I. Introduction — Divisioi 
-—Narration.— § II. Argument— Pathos— Peroration.— § III. Pronunciation and Delivery. 
— § IV. Means of improving in Speaking. 

Chapter V. Beauty and Sublimity.~§ I. Beauty.— § II. Grandeur, or Sublimity in 
External Objects. — § III. Sublimity in Writing. 

Chapter VI. Eloquence. — § I. Nature and History of Eloquence.—! II. Grecian Elo- 
quence.— § III. Eoman Eloquence.— § IV. Modern Eloquence. 

Chapter VII. Different Kinds of Public Speaking. — § I. Eloquence of Popular As- 
eemblies.- § II. Eloquence of the Bar— § III. Eloquence of the Pulpit. —§ IV.— Histori- 
cal, Epistolary and Fictitious Writing. 

Chapter VIII. Poetry.— § I. Origin and Nature of Poetry.— § II. Pastoral and Lyric 
Poetry.— § III. Didactic and Descriptive Poetry.— § IV. Epic Poetry.— § V. Dramatic 
Poetry. 

The volume is a neat 12mo. of 243 pages. Price 63 cents. Teachers sup- 
plied with copies for examination at half price. 

COLLIJSrS & BROTHER, PUBLISHERS, 

ISTo. 82 Warren-street, New York. 



rii:€oi?im£:ni>atioivs. 

[t is well known that the recommendations which generally accompjjiy new books 
have very little weight with the public. This is as it should be, for tliat work which 
rests more on its written testimonials, than on its intrinsic merits for support, asserts 
no claims to permanent patronage. But recommendations which analyze the merita 
of a work, and which, oy exhibiting its prominent features in a striking light, are 
calculated to carry conviction to the reader that the system recommended is merito- 
rious, the author is proud to have it in his power to present in this volume. The fol- 
lowing are some of the numerous testimonials which he has received, and tor which he 
tenders his grateful acknowledgments to those hterary gentlemen to whose Hberality 
and poUteness he is indebted for them. More than six hundred others presented to the 
uuthor, and many of which are equally flattering with these, he has not room to insert 



The following notice of this work is extracted from the " Western Review,'* This 
journal is ably conducted by the Rev. Timothy Flint, author of " Francis Berrian," 
" History and Geography of the Miss. Valley," and many other popular and valuable 
works. 

We had not, at that time, seen Mr, Kirkham's " Grammar in familiar I lectures," but 
have since given it a cursory penisal. If we comprehend the author's design, it is not 
so much to introduce new principles, as to render more easy and intelhgible i ose 
which have been long established, and to furnish additional facilities to an accural and 
thorough knowledge of our language. In this we think he has been successful. 

It is to be expected that a modest, unassuming writer, on presenting himself before 
the public tribunal as an author, will, as far as is consistent with his plan, avail himself 
of the authority of such as have written well on the subject before him. Mr. Kirkham 
\ias accordingly followed Mr. Murray in the old beaten track of English writers on 
grammar, in the general principles of his science ; endeavoring, at the same time, to 
avoid whatever appeared to be erroneous or absurd in the writings ot that author, and 
adopting an entirely new arrangement. The most useful matter contained in the 
treatise of Mr. Muiray, is embraced in tliis ; but in the definitions and rules, it is siia- 
plitied, and rendered much more intelligible. Though our author follows Mr. Murray, 
in the general principles ofliis work, he haSy in nu;nei"ous instances, ditfered from him, 
pursuing a course that appears to be his own, and introducing some valuable improve- 
ments. 

Among these may be mentioned some additional rules and explanatory notes in syn- 
tax, the arrangement of the parts of speech, the mode (tf explaining them, manner of 
parsing, manner of explaining some of the pronouns, and the use of a synopsis which 
presents the essentials of the science at one view, and is well calculated to attbrd assis^ 
ance to learners. 

In his arrangement of the parts of speech, Mr. Kirkham seems to have endeavored 
to follow the order of nature; and we are not able to see how he could have done better. 
The noun and verb, as being the most important parts of speech, are first explained, 
and afterwards those which are considered in a secondary and subordinate character. 
By following this order, he has avoided the abs'irdity so common among authors, of 
defining the minor parts before their principals, of which they were designed to be the 
appendages, and has rationally prepared the way for conducting the learner by easy 
advances to a correct view of the science. 

In Ills illustrations of the various subjects contc Ined In his work, our author appears 
to have aimed, not at a flowery style, nor at the appearance of being learned, but at 
being understood. The clearness and perspicuity of his remarks, and their application 
to familiar objects, are well calculated to arrest t \^ attention, and aid the understanding 
of the pupU, and thereby to lessen the labor oftae instinicter. The principles of the 
science are simplified, and rendered so perfectlxj eai:y of compreJiension, we should think 
no ordinary mind, having such help, could fii.d .hi-un .difficult. It is in this particular 
tliat the work appears to possess its chief mf^rit, and on this account it cannot fail of 
being preferred to many others. 

It gives us pleasure to remarlt, in reference to t he success of the amiable and modest 
author whose work is before us, that we quot*. I '^y.n. tiie fifth e dition. 

The following is from the pen of a gentieman <^f the Bar, formerly a distinguished. 

Classical teacher. [Extract from the " National (>i3is."] 

As a friend to literature, and especially to ;Wnuine merit, it is with peculiar pleasure 
I allude to a notice in a late paper of this city, in which Mr. S. Kirkham proposes to de- 
liver a course of Lectures on English Grami^^r. To such as feel interestt'd in acqulr- 
'jig a general and practical knowledge of thii useful science, an opportur^ty is now 



6 RECOMMENDATIONS* 

preaented whicb ongfit not to be neglected. Having: myself witnessed, in sereral in- 
atances, witliin the last ten months, the practical results of Mr. Kirkham's plan, I an* 
enabled to give a decisive opinion of its merits. The extensive knowledge acquired in 
one course by his class in Pittsbiu'gh, and the great proliciency evinced by his classes 
elsewhere, are a demonstration of the utihty and superiority of his method of teach- 
ing, and a higher encomium on him than I am able to bestow. 

The principles on which Mr. Kirkham's " New system of Grammar" is predicated, 
are judiciously compiled, and happily and briefly expressed ; but the great merit of 
his work consists in the lucid illustrations accompanying the principles, and the simple 
and gradual manner in which it conducts the learner along from step to step thrc::^ 
the successive stages of the science. The explanations blended with the theory, are 
addressed to the understanding of the pupil in a manner so familiar, that they cannot 
fail to excite in him a deep interest; and whatever system is calculated to bring into 
requisition the mental powers, must, I conceive, be productive of good results. In ni}* 
bumble opinion, the system of teaching introduced into this work, will enable a dili- 
gent pupil to acquire, without any other aid, a practical knowledge of grammaj", in less 
Ulan one-fourth part of the time usually devoted. 

My views of Mr. Kirkham's system are thus publicly given, wdth the gi^eater plea- 
sure, on account of the Uterary empiricisms which have been so extensively practised 
in many paits of the western country. 

Cinciimati, 

From Mr. Blood, Principal of the Chambersburgh Academy, Pa 
Mr. Kirkham, — It is now almost twenty years since I became a teacher of youths 
and, during this period, I have not only consulted alL but have used many of the differ- 
ent systems of English grammar that have fallen in my way ; and, sir, I do assure you, 
without the least wish to flatter, that yours far exceeds any I have yet seen. 

Your arrangement and systematic order of parsing are most excellent ; and expe- 
rience has convinced me, (having used it, and it only, for the last twelve or thirteen 
months,) that a scholar will leara more of the nature and principles of our langiiage in 
one quarter, from your system, than in a whole year from any other I had previously 
used. I do, therefore, most cheerfully and earnestly recommend it to the public at 
large, and especially to those who, anxious to acquire a knowledge of our language, 
are destitute of the advantages of an instructer. 

Yours, very respectluUy, SAMUEL BLOOD. 

Chambersbuirgh Academy, 

From Mr. N. R, Smith, editor of a valuable literary jounial, styled *' The Hesperus.* 
Mr. Kirkham, 

Sir, I have examined your Lectures on English Grammar with that degree of minute 
ness which enables me to yield my unqualified approbation of the work as a grammatl 
cal system. The engaging manner in which you have explained the elements of gi-am 
mar, and accommodated them to the capacities of youth, is an ample illustration oi' the 
utility of your plan. In addition to this, the critical attention you have paid to an 
analytical development of grammatical principles, while it is calculated to encourage 
the perseverance of young students in the march of improvement, is sufficient, also, to 
employ tahe researches of the literary connoisseur. I trust that your valuable compila- 
tion will be speedily introduced into schools and academies. 

Witli respect, yours, N. R. SMITH, A. M. 

Pittsburgh, 

From Mr. Jungmann, Principal of the Frederick Lutheran Academy : — Extract 

Having carefully examined Mr. S. Kirkham's new system of " English Grammar ii. 
famiUar Lectures,'' I am satisfied that the pre-eminent advantages it possesses over oui 
common systems, will soon convince the public, that it is not one of those feeble 
efforts of quackery which have so often obtruded upon our notice. Its decided suj)p. 
riority over aU other systems, consists in adapting the subject-matter to the capacity of 
the young learner, and the happy mode adopted of communicating it to his mind in a 
manner so clear and simple, that he can easily comprehend the nature and the apphca- 
tion of every principle that comes before him. 

In short, all the intricacies of the science are elucidated so clearly, I am confident that 
even a private learner, of common docility, can, by perusing this system attentively, 
acquire a better practical knowledge of this important branch of literature in thret 
rmnth^, tlian is ordinarily obtained in 07te vear. 

Frederick, Md " JOHN E. JUNGMANN. 



A»VERTISE1WIENT 

TO THE ELEVENTH EDITION 

The author is free to acknowledge, that since this treatise first ventured 
on the wave of public opinion, the gales of patronage which have wafted 
it along, have been far more favorable than he had reason to anticipate. 
Had any one, on its first appearance, predicted, that the demand for it 
would call forth twenty-two thousand copies during the past year, the au- 
tlior woidd have considered the prediction extravagant and chimerical. In 
gratitude, therefore, to that public which has smiled so propitiously on 
his humble efforts to advance the cause of learning, he has endeavored, 
by unremitting attention to the improvement of his work, to render it aa 
useful and as unexceptionable as his time and talents would permit. 

It is believed that the tenth and eleventh editions have been greatly im- 
proved ; but the author is apprehensive that his work is not yet aa accu- 
rate and as much simplified as it may be. If, however, the disadvantages 
of lingering under a broken constitution, and of being able to devote to 
this subject only a small portion of his time, snatched from the active pur- 
suits of a business life, {^active as far as his imperfect health permits him to 
be,) are any apology for its defects, he hopes that the candid. will set dov^i 
the apology to his credit. This personal allusion is hazarded with tlie 
additional hope, that it will ward off some of the arrows of criticism which 
may be aimed at liim, and render less pointed and poisonous those that 
may fall upon him. Not that he would beg a truce with the gentlemen 
critics and reviewers. Any compromise with them would betray a want 
of self-confidence and moral courage which he would, by no means, be 
wdlling to avow. It would, moreover, be prejudicial to his mterest ; for 
he is determined, if his life be preserved, to avail himself of the advanta- 
ges of any judicious and candid criticisms on his production, that may ap- 
pear, and, two or three years hence, revise his work, and present to the 
public another and a better edition. 

The improvements in the tenth edition, consisted mainly in the additior 
of many important principles ; in rendering the illustrations more critical, 
extensive, accurate, and lucid ; in connecting more closely wdth the genius 
and philosophy of our language, the general principles adopted ; and in 
adding a brief view of philosophical grammar interspersed in notes. The 
introduction into the eleventh edition, of many verbal criticisms, of ad- 
ditional corrections in orthography and orthoepy, of the leading principles 
of rhetoric, and of general additions and improvements in various parts 
of the work, render this edition , it is believed, far preferable to any of 
the former editions of the work. 

Perhaps some wiQ regard the philosophical notes as a useless exhibition 
of pedantiy. If so, the author's only apology is, that some investigations 
of this nature seemed to be called for by a portion of the community 
whose miuds, of late, appear to be under the influence of a kind of philo- 
sophical mania ; and to such these notes are respectfiilly submitted for 
just what they may deem their real value. The author's ov^ti opinion oa 
this point, is, that they proffer no material advantages to common learn- 
ers ; but that they may profitably engage the attention of the cmious, and 
perhaps impart a degree of interest to the literary coiuioisseur. 
New-York. August 22, 1829. 



COIVTEWTS. 



PAGE. 




PAGE 


Address to the learner 14 


Nouns 


30 


A, an, one 65, 124 


Gender of 


34 


And 124 


Person of 


37 


Adjectives 37, 69 


Number of 


39 


Adverbs 83 


Case of 


41, 54, 123 


Agreement of words 52 


Orthography- 


19 


Anomalies 162 


Rules of 


23 


Articles 64 


Parsing 


49 


Because 125 


Participles 


78 


But, than, as 116, 124,165 


Poetry transposed 


166 


Case 41 


Prepositions 


91 


Nominative 43, 157 


Pronouns 


95 


Possessive 48 


Personal 


97 


Objective 54, 93 


Compomid personal 


100 


Nominative case uidepen- 


Adjective * 


105 


dent 38, 129, 164, 177 


Relative 


108 


Nominative case absolute 130, 177 


Personification 


216 


Apposition of cases 130, 178 


Prosody 


2(8 


Nominative and objective 


Punctuation 


201 


after the verb to be 186 


Punctuation, Key to 


227 


Active, passive, and neuter 


Rhetoric 


219 


nominatives 157 


Rules of syntax 


175 



Conjunctions 118 

Conjugation of regular verbs 142 
Denvation (all the philosoph- 
ical notes treat of de- 
rivation) 27, 37, 171 
Etymology 26 
Exercises in false syntax 177 

In punctuation 202 

Figures of speech 214 

Gender 34 

Government 52 

Grammar, general division of 17 

Philosophical 18 

Have 143, 155 

Idioms 162 

Interjections 126 

It 104 

If 122 

Key to the exercises 225 

Letters, somids of 21 

Like 75 

Manner of meaning of words 28, 73 
Moods 134 

Signs of 141 

Subjunctive 135 145, 155 



Sentences, definitions of sim- 
ple and compound 119 
Transposition of 124, 166 
Standard of grammatical ac- 
curacy 17, 75 
Syntax 26 
To 51 
Tenses 138, 193 
Signs of the 141 
The 64, 65 
That 65, 110 
Terminations 20, 37, 49, 78, 136 
Verbs ^ 42, 47 
Active-transitive 54, 56 
Active-intransitive 55 
Passive 157 
Neuter 43 
Defective 159 
Auxiliary 110, 153 
Regular 143 
Irregular 148 
Compound 95. 187 
Versification 210 
Worth 75, 163 
What, which, who 109, 111,114 
You 99 



PREFACE. 

There appears to be something assuming in the act of writmg, and thnisV 
b.g uito public notice, a new work on a subject which has akeady em 
ployed many able pens ; for who would presume to do this, imless he 
believed his production to be, in some respects, superior to every one of the 
kind which had preceded it ? Hence, in presenting to the pubUc this 
system of English Grammar, the author is aware that an apology will be 
looked for, and that the arguments on which that apology is grounded, 
must mevitably undergo a ngid scnitiiiy. Apprehensive, however, that 
no explanatory effort, on his part, would shield him from the imputation 
©f arrogance by such as are blmded by self-interest, or by those who are 
wedded to the doctiines and opinions of his predecessors, with them he 
will not attempt a compromise, being, in a great measure, indifferent either 
to their praise or their censure. But with the candid, he is willing to ne- 
gotiate an amicable ti-eaty, knowing that they are always ready to enter 
into it on honorable terms. In this negotiation he asks nothing more 
than merely to rest the merits of his work on its practical utility, believing 
that, ii' it prove uncommonly successful in facilitating the progress of youth 
in the march of mental improvement, thai will be its best apology. 

When we bring mto consideration the numerous productions of those 
learned philologists who have labored so long, and, as many suppose, so 
successfully, in establishing the principles of our language; and, more 
especially, when w^e view the labors of some of our modern compilers, 
who have displayed so much ingenuity and acuteness in attempting to ar^ 
range those piinciples in such a manner as to form a correct and an easy 
medium of mental conference ; it does, indeed, appear a little like pr&- 
siflfeption for a young man to enter upon a subject which has so frequently 
engaged the attention and talents of men distinguished for their erudition. 
The author ventures forward, however, under the conviction, that most of 
his predecessors are very deficient, at least, m manner, if not in matter ; 
and this conviction, he believes, will be corroborated by a majority of the 
best judges in community. It is admitted, that many valuable improve- 
ments have been made by some of our late writers, wdio have endeavor- 
ed to simplify and render this subject mtelligible to the young learner, but 
they have all overlooked what the author considers a very important ob 
ject, namely, a systematic order of parsing ; and nearly all have neg- 
lected to develop and explain the pruicij)les in such a manner as to enable 
the learner, without great difficulty, to comprehend theu' nature and use 

By some this system will, no doubt, be discarded on account of its sim- 
plicity ; w^hile to others its simplicity wdll prove its praicipal recommen- 
dation. Its design is an humble one. It proffers no great advantages to 
the recondite gi-ammarian ; it professes not to instruct the hterary con- 
n* isseur ; it presents no attractive graces of style to charm, no daring 
flights to astonish, no deep researches to gi'atify him ; but in the humblest 
simplicity of diction, it attempts to accelerate the march of the juvenile 
mind in its advances in the path of science, by dispersing those clouds that 
80 often bewilder it, and removing those obstacles that generally retard 
its progress. In this way it endeavors to render interesting and deligh^ 
ful a study which has hitherto been considered tedious, diy, and irksome. 
Its leading object is to adopt a correct and an easy method, in which 
pleasure is blended with the labors of the learner, and which is calcu- 
lated to excite in him a spirit of inquiiy, that shall call forth into vigoroiui 
and useful exercise, eveiy latent energy of his mind ; and thus enable him 
soon to beconx-j thoroughly acquainted with the nature of the prin^ pies, 
aiid with their practical utility and application 



If) FKHFaCE. 

Content to be useful , instead of being brilliant, the wnterc/f tbo.-e prjgf?s 
has endeavored to shun the path of those whose aim appears to have been 
to dazzle, rather than to instruct. As he has ahned not so much at oi-igi- 
nality as utility, he has adopted the thoughts of his predecessors whose 
labors have become public stock, whenever he could not, in his opinion, 
furnish better and brighter of his own. Aware that there is, in the pub 
lie mind, a strong predilection for the doctrines contauied in Mr. Murray's 
grammar, he has thought proper, not merely from inotives of policy, but 
from choice, to select his principles chiefly from that work ; and, more 
over, to adopt, as far as consistent wdth his own views, the laiiguage of that 
eminent philologi&t. In no instance has he vaned from him, unless he 
conceived that, in so doing, some practical advantage would be gained. 
He hopes, therefore, to escape the censure so frecpiently and so justly 
awarded to those unfortunate innovators vv^ho have not scrupled to alter, 
mutilate, and torture the text of that able writer, merely to gratify an 
itching propensity t( j figure in the world as authors, and gain an ephemeral 
popularity by arrogating to themselves the credit due to another. 

The author is not disposed, however, to disclaim all pretensions to origi- 
nality ; for, although his principles are chiefly selected, (and who would 
presume to make new^ ones?) the manner of arranging, illustrating, and 
applying them, is principally his ow^n. Let no one, therefore, if he ha[>' 
pen to find in other v/orks. ideas and illustrations similar to some contaiii- 
ed in the fjliowing lectures, too hastily accuse him of plagiarism. It is 
v/ell knowm that similar investigations and pursuits often elicit correspond 
iu^ ideas in different minds : and hence it is not micommon for the same 
thought to be strictly original with many v/riters. 'Y\\g author is not here 
attemptmg to manufacture a garment to shield him from rebuke, should 
he unjustly claim the property of another ; but he v/ishes it to be under- 
stood, that a long course of teaching and investigation, has often prcxlucetj 
in his mind ideas and arguments on the subject of grammar, exactly or 
nearly corresponding with those which he afterwards found, had, under 
similar circumstances, been produced in the minds of others. He hopes, 
therefore, to be pardoned by the critic, even though he should not 1)9 
willing to reject a good idea of ids oivn, merely because some one else 
has, at some time or other, been blessed with the same thought. 

As the plan of this treatise is far more comprehensive than those of or- 
dinary grammars, the writer could not, without making his work um-ea- 
sonably voluminous, ti'eat some topics as extensively as was desirable. 
Its design is to embrace, not only all the most important principles of tha 
science, but also exercises in parsing, false syntax, and punctuation, suffi- 
ciently extensive for all ordinaiy, practical purposes, and a key to the ex- 
ercises, and, moreover, a series of illustrations so full and intelligible, a3 
rnmpletely to adapt the principles to the capacities of common learners. 
Whether this design has been successfully or unsuccessfully executed, is 
left for the public to decide. The general adoption of the work into 
schools, wherever it has become known, and the ready sale o^ forty thou- 
sand copies, (though without hitherto affording the author any pecuniary 
profit,) are favorable omens. 

In the selection and arrangement of prhiciples for his work, the author 
has endeavored to pursue a course betv/een the extremes, of taking blindly 
on tRist whatever has been sanctioned by prejudice and the authority of 
venerable names, and of that arrogant, innovating spirit, which sets at de- 
fiance all authority, and attempts to overthrow all former systems, and con- 
vince the world that all true knowledge and science are wrapped up in & 
crude system of vagaries of its own invention. Notwithstanding the author 
\b aware that public prejudice is powerfiil, and that ho vvho ventures 



HINTS TO TEACHERS. 11 

much by way of innovation, will be liable to defeat his owni pnrprse %^ fall- 
ing into neglect ; yet he has taken the liberty to think for himself, to nives- 
tigate the subject critically and dispassionately, and to adopt sucli principles 
only as he deemed the least objectionable, and best calculated to effect the 
object he had in view. But what his system claims as improvements on 
others, consists not so much in bettering the principles themselves, as in 
the method adapted of com-nuinicating a knowledge of them to the mind of the 
learner. That the work is defective, the author is fully sensible : and he is 
tree to acknowledge, that its defects arise, in part, from his own want of 
judgment and skill. But there is another and a more serious cause of 
them, namely, the anomalies and imperfections with which the language 
abounds. This latter circumstance is also the cause of the existence of so 
vddely different opinions on many important points ; and, moreover, the 
reason that the grammatical principles of our language can never be indis- 
putably settled. But principles ought not to be rejected because they admit 
oi' exceptions. — He who is thoroughly acquamted with the genius and 
strucUire of our language, can duly appreciate the truth of these remarks. 
*^* Should parents object to the Compendium, fearing it will soon be 
destroyed by their children, they are infonned that the pupil will not have 
occasion to use it one-tenth part as much as he will the book which it ac- 
companies : and besides, if it be destroyed, he will find all the definition* 
and rules which it contains, recapitulated in the series of Lectures 



HINTS TO TEACHERS ANI> PRIVATE I.EAKJ\EliS. 

As this work proposes a new mode of parsmg, and pursues an armnge- 
ment essentially different from that generally adopted, it may not be 
deemed improper for the author to give some directions to those w^ho may 
be disposed to use it. Perhaps they who take only a slight view of the 
order of parsing, will not consider it new, but blend it with those long 
since adopted. Some writers have, indeed, attempted plans somewhat 
similar ; but in no instance have they reduced them to what the author 
considers a regular systematic order. 

The methods which they have generally suggested, require the teacher 
to interrogate the pupil as he proceeds ; or else he is permitted to parse 
without giving any explanations at all. Others hint that the learner ought 
to apply definitions in a general way, but they lay down no systematic 
arrangement of questions as his guide. The systematic order laid do^vn in 
this w^ork, if pursued by the pupil, compels him to apply every definition 
and every rule that appertains to each w^ord he parses, without having a 
question put to him by the teacher ; and, in so doing, he explains every 
word fully as he goes along. This course enables the learner to proceed 
independently ; and proves, at the same time, a great relief to the instnic- 
ter. The convenience and advantage of this method, are far greater than 
can be easily conceived by one who is unacquainted with. it. The author 
is, therefore, anxious to have the absurd practice, wherever it has been 
established, of causing learners to commit and recite definitions and rules 
without any simultaneous application of them to practical examples, imme- 
diately abolished. This system obviates the necessity of pursuing such a 
stupid course of drudgery ; for the young beginner who pursues it, will 
have, in a few weeks, all the most important definitions and rules perfectly 
committed, simply by applying them in parsing. 

If this plan be once adopted, it is confidently believed that every teacher 
who is desirous to ccinsult, either his own convenience, or the advantage of 
his pupils, will readily pursue it iji preference to any for mer method. Thia 



12 HINTS TO TEACHERS 

belief is founded on the advantages which the author himself has expen* 
enced from it in the course of several years, devoted to the instiiiction of 
youth and adults. By pursuing this system, he can, with less labor, 
advance a pupil farther in a practical knowledge of this abstruse science, 
in Uco mo?iths, than he could in o7ie year when he taught in the " old way." 
Tt is presumed that no instnicter, who once gives this system a fair trial, 
will doubt the tnith of this assertion. 

Perhaps some will, on a first view of the work, disapprove of the transpo- 
eition of many parts; but w^hoever examines it attentively, will find that, 
although the author has not followed the common '' artificial and unnatural 
an-angement adopted by most of his predecessors," yet he has endeavored 
to pursue a more judicious one, namely, '' the order of the understanding.'* 

The learner should commence, not by committing and rehearsing, but 
o}' reading attentively the first two lectures several times over. He ought 
then to parse, according to the systematic order, the examples given tor 
that purpose; in doing which, as previously stated, he has an opportunity 
of conmiitting all the definitions and rules belonging to the parts of speech 
included in the examples. 

The Compendium, as it presents to the eye of the learner a condensed 
but comprehensive view of the whole science, maybe properly considered 
an '* Ocular Analysis of the English language." By referring to it, the 
yotmg student is enabled to apply all his definitions and rules from the very 
con .mencement of his parsing. To some, this mode of procedure may seem 
rathiT tedious ; but it must appear obvious to every person of discernment, 
that a pupil will learn more by parsing ^i;e words critically, and explauiing 
them fully, than he would by parsing ^/^y words superficially, and without 
understanding their various properties. The teacher who pursiies this 
plan, is not under the necessity of hearing his pupils recite a single lesson 
of dejiidtions committed to memory, for he has a fair opportunity of discov- 
ering their knowledge of these as they evince it in parsing. All other direc- 
tions necessary for the learner in school, as well as for the pi-ivate learnery 
will be given in the succeeding pages of the work. Should these feeble 
efibrts prove a saving of much time and expense to those yoTing persons 
who may be disposed to pursue this science with avidity, by enabling them 
easily to acquire a critical knowledge of a branch of education so important 
and desirable, the author's fondest anticipations will be fully realized ; but 
should his work fail into the hands of any w^ho are expecting, by the acqui- 
sition, to become grammarians, aiid yet, have not sufficient ambition and 
perseverance to make themselves acquainted with its contents, it is hoped, 
that the blame, for their nonimprovement, will not be thrown upon him. 



To those enterprising and intelligent gentlemen who may be disposed to lecture on this 
plan, the author takes the liberty to offer a few hints by way of encouragement. 
Any judicious instructer of grammar, if he take the trouble to make himself familiar 
with the contents of th(> loliowing pages, v/ill find it an easy matter to pursue this sys- 
tem. One remark only to the lecturer, is sufficient. Instead of causing his pupils to 
acquire a knowledge of the nature and use of the principles by intense application, let 
him communicate it verbally ; that is, let him first take up one part of speech, and, in 
an oral lecture, unfold and explain all its properties, not only by adopting the illustra- 
Sons given in the book, but also by giving others that may occur to his mind as he pro- 
ceeds. After a part of speech has been thus elucidated, the class should be interroga- 
ted on it, and then taught to parse it, and correct errors in composition under the rulea 
that apply to it. In the same manner he may proceed with the other parts of speech, 
observing, howevei, to recapitulate occasiontilly, until the learners become thoroughly 
acquainted with whatever principles may have been presented. If this plan be faith- 
fiiUy pursued, rapid progress, on the part of the learner, will be the inevitable result ; 
and that teacher who pursues it, cannot fail of acquiring distinction, and an enviablp 
popularity in his profession. " S. KJRKHAM 



FAMILIAR LECTURES 



ENGLISH GRAMMA R 



LECTURE I. 

DIVISIONS OF GRAMMAR.— ORTHOGRAPHY, 

TO THE YOUNG LEARNER. 

You are about to enter upon one of the most useful, and, when 
rightly pursued, one of the most interesting studies in the whole 
circle of science. If, however, you, like many a misguided 
youth, are under the impression that the study of grammar is 
dry and irksome, and a matter of little consequence, I trust I shall 
succeed in removing from your mind, all such false notions and 
ungrounded prejudices; for I will endeavor to convince you, be- 
fore I close these lectures, that this is not only a pleasing study, 
but one of real and substantial utility ; a study that directly tends 
to adorn and dignify human nature, and meliorate the condition 
of man. Grammar is a leading branch of that learning which 
alone is capable of unfolding and maturing the mental powers, and 
of elevating man to his proper rank in the scale of intellectual 
existence ; — of that learning which lifts the soul from earth, and 
enables it to hold converse with a thousand worlds. In pursuing 
any and every other path of science, you will discover the truth 
of these remarks, and feel its force ; for you will find, that, as 
grammar opens the door to every department of learning, a knowl- 
edge of it is indispensable: and should you not aspire at distinc* 
lion in the republic of letters, this knowledge cannot fail of being 
serviceable to you, even if you are destined to pass through the 
humblest walks of life. I think it is clear, that, in one point of 
view, grammatical knowledge possesses a decisive advantage over 
every other branch of learning. Penmanship, arithmetic, geog- 
raphy, astronomy, botany, chemistry, and so on, are highly use- 
ful in their respective places; but not one of them is so univer- 
sally applicable to practical purposes, as this. In every situa- 
tion, under all circimstances, on all occasions ; — when you speak, 

2 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

i.^ad, write, or think, a knowledge of grammar is of essentia, 
utility. 

Doubtless you have hear'] some persons assert, that they could 
detect and correct any error in language by the ear, and speak 
and write accurately without a knowledge of grammar. Now 
your own observation will soon convince you, that this assertiou 
is incorrect. A man of refined taste, may, by perusing good au- 
thors, and conversing with the learned, acquire that knowledge of 
language which will enable him to avoid those glaring errors that 
offf^nd the ear; but there are other errors equally gross, which 
have not a harsh sound, and, consequently, which cannot be de- 
tected without a knowledge of the rules that are violated. Be- 
lieve me, therefore, when 1 say, that without the knowledge and 
application of grammar rules, it is impossible for any one to think, 
speak, read, or write with accuracy. From a want of such 
knowledge, many often express their ideas in a manner so im« 
proper and obscure as to render it impossible for any one to un^ 
derstand them: their language frequently amounts, not only to 
had sense, but ??on-sense. In other instances several different 
meanings may be affixed to the words they employ; and what 
is still worse, is, that not unfrequently their sentences are so 
constructed, as to convey a m.eaning quite the reverse of that which 
they intended. Nothing of a secular nature can be more worthy 
of your attention, then, than the acquisition of grammatical knowl- 
edge. 

The path which leads to grammatical excellence, is not all the 
way smooth and flowery, but in it you will find some thorns inter- 
spersed, and some obstacles to be surmounted ; or, in simple lan- 
guage, you will find, in the pursuit of this science, many intri- 
cacies which it is rather difficult for the juvenile mmd completely 
to unravel. I shall, therefore, as I proceed, address you in plain 
language, and endeavor to illustrate every principle in a man- 
ner'^so clear and simple, that you will be able, if you exercise 
your mind, to understand its nature, and apply it to practice as 
you go along; fori would rather give ^'ou one useful idea, than 
fifty high-sounding words, the meaning of which you would pro- 
bably be unable to comprehend. 

Should you ever have any doubts concerning the meaning of 
a word, or the sense of a sentence, you must not be discouraged, 
but persevere, either by studying my explanations, or by asking 
some person competent to inform you, till you obtain a clear con- 
ception of it, and till all doubts are removed. By carefully ex- 
amining, and frequently reviewing, the following lectures,^ you 
will soon be able to discern the grammatical construction of our 



ENGLISH GRAMIMy\R. 15 

language, and fix in your mind the principles by which it is gov 
erned. Nothing delights youth so much, as a clear and distinct 
knowledge of any branch of science which they are pursuing; 
and, on the other hand, I know they are apt to be discouraged with 
any branch of learning which requires much time and attention 
to be understood. It is the evidence of a weak mind, however, 
to be discouraged by the obstacles with which the young learner 
must expect to meet ; and the best means that you can adopt, in 
order to enable you to overcome the difficulties that arise in the 
incipient stage of your studies, is to cultivate the habit of think- 
ing methodically and soundly on all subjects of importance which 
may engage your attention. Nothing will be more effectual in 
enabling you to think, as well as to speak and write, correctly, 
than the study of English grammar, according to the m.ethod of 
pursuing it as prescribed in the following pages. This r-ystem is 
designed, and, I trust, w^ell calculated, to expand and strengthen 
ihe intellectual faculties, in as much as it involves a process by 
which the mind is addressed, and a know^ledge of grammar com- 
municated in an interesting and familiar manner. 

You are aware, my young friend, that you live in an age of 
light and knowledge ; — an age in which science and the arts are 
marching onward with gigantic strides. You live, too, in a land 
of liberty ; — a land on v/hich the smiles of Heaven beam with 
uncommon refulgence. The trump of the warrior and the clang- 
or of arms no longer echo on our mountains, or in our valleys ; 
'' the garments dyed in blood have passed aw^ay ;'* the mighty strug- 
gle for independence is over ; and you live to enjoy the rich boon 
of freedom and prosperity which was purchased with the blood 
of our fathers. These considerations forbid that you should ever 
be so unmindful of your duty to your country, to your Creator, to 
yourself, and to succeeding generations, as to be content to grovel 
in ignorance. Remember that "knowledge is power; " that an 
enlightened and a virtuous people can never be enslaved ; and 
that, on the intelligence of our youth, rest the future liberty, the 
prosperity, the happiness, the grandeur, and the glory of our be 
loved country. Go on, then, with a laudable ambition, and an un. 
yielding perseverance, in the path which leads to honor and re- 
nown. Press forward. Go, and gather laurels on the hill of sci- 
ence ; linger among her unfading beauties; "drink deep'" of 
her crystal fountain ; and then join in " the march of fame. '' Be- 
come learned and virtuous, and you will be great. Love God 
and serve him. and you will be happy. 



16 LANGUAGE. 

Language, in its most extensive sense, implies those signs by 
which men and brutes communicate to each other their thoughts, 
affections, and desires. 

Language may be divided, 1. into natural and artificial); 2. 
into spoken and written. 

Natural Language consists in the use of those natural signs 
which different animals employ in communicating their feelings 
one to another. The meaning of these signs all perfectly under- 
stand by the principles of their nature. This language is com- 
mon both to man and brute. The elements of natural language 
in man, may be reduced to three kinds ; modulations of the voice, 
gestures, and features. By means of these, two savages who 
have no common, artificial language, can communicate their 
thoughts in a manner quite intelligible : they can ask and refuse, 
affirm and deny, threaten and supplicate ; they can traffick, enter 
into contracts, and plight their faith. The language of brutes 
consists in the use of those inarticulate sounds by which they ex- 
press their thoughts and affections. Thus, the chirping of a bird, 
the bleating of a lamb, the neighing of a horse, and the growling, 
whining, and barking of a dog, are the language of those animals, 
respectively. 

Artificial Language consists in the use of words, by means 
of which mankind are enabled to communicate their thoughts to 
one another. — In order to assist you in comprehending what is 
meant by the term word, I will endeavor to illustrate the meaning 
of the term. 

Idea. The notices which we gain by sensation and percep- 
tion, and w^hich are treasured up in the mind to be the materials 
of thinking and knowledge, are denominated ideas. For exam- 
ple, when you place your hand upon a piece of ice, a sensation 
is excited which we call coldness. That faculty which notices 
this sensation or change produced in the mind, is called percep- 
tion ; and the abstract notice itself, or notion you form of this 
sensation, is denominated an idea. This being premised, we will 
now proceed to the consideration of words. 

Words are articulate sounds, used by common consent, not as 
natural, but as artificial, signs of our ideas. Words have no mean- 
ing in themselves. They are merely the artificial representatives 
of those ideas affixed to them by comuact or agreement among 
chose who use them. In English, for instance, to a particular 
kind of metal we assign the name gold ; not because there is, in 
*hat s(^und, any peculiar aptness which suggests the idea we wish 



GRAMMAR. 17 

to convey, but the application of that sound to the idea signified, 
]s an act altogether arbitrary. Were there any natural connex- 
ion between the sound and the thing signified, the word gold would 
convey the sanne idea to the people of other countries as it does 
to ourselves. But such is not the fact. Other nations make use 
of different sounds to signify the same thing. Thus, aurum de- 
notes the same idea in Latin, and or in French. Hence it follows, 
that it is by custom only we learn to annex particular ideas to 
particular sounds. 

Spoken Language or speech is made up of articulate sounds 
uttered by the human voice. 

The voice is formed by air which, after it passes through the 
glottis, (a small aperture in the upper part of the wind-pipe,) is 
modulated by the action of the throat, palate, teeth, tongue, lips, 
and nostrils. 

Written Language. The elements of written language con- 
sist of letters or characters, which, by common consent and gen- 
eral usage, are combined into words, and thus made the ocular 
representatives of the articulate sounds uttered by the voice. 



GRAMMAR. 
GRAMMAR is the science of language. 

Grammar may be divided into two species, universal and par- 
ticular. 

Universal Grammar explains the principles which are com- 
mon to all languages. 

Particular Grammar applies those general principles to a 
particular language, modifying them according to its genius, and 
the established practice of the best speakers and writers by 
whom it is used. Hence, 

The established practice of the best speakers and writers of any 
language, is the standard of grammatical accuracy in the use of 
that language. 

By the phrase, established practice, is implied reputable, nation- 
al, and present usage. A usage becomes good and legal, when 
it has been long and generally adopted. 

The best speakers and writers, or such as may be considered 
good authority in the use of language, are those who are deserv- 
edly in high estimation ; speakers, distinguished for their elo- 

2* 



18 ENGLISH GP.AMMAR. 

culioR and other literary attainments, and writers, eminent foi 
correct taste, solid matter, and refined manner. 

In the grammar of a ^er/ec^ language, no iTiles should be admitted, but 
such as are founded on fixed principles, arising out of the genius of that lan- 
guage and the nature of things ; but our language being im-iperiect, it be- 
comes necessary, in a practical treatise, like this, to adopt some rules to direct 
us in the use of speech as reflated by custom. If we had a permanent 
and surer standard than capricious custom to regulate us in the transmission' 
of thought, great inconvenience would be avoided. They, however, who 
introduce usages which depart from the analogy and philosophy of a lan- 
guage, are conspicuous among the number of those who form that language, 
and have power to control it. 

Language is conventional, and not only invented, but, in its progressive 
advancement, varied for purposes of practical convenience. Hence it as- 
sumes any and every form which those who make use of it choose to 
give it. We are, therefore, as rational and practical grammarians, compelled 
to submit to the necessity of the case ; to take the language as it is, and 
not as it shovld be, and bow to custom. 

Philosophical Gtiabimar investigates and develops the princi- 
ples of language, as founded in the nature of things and the origi- 
nal laws of thought. It also discusses the grounds of the classifi- 
cation of words, and explains those procedures which practical 
grammar lays down for our observance. 

Practical Grammar adopts the most convenient classification 
of the words of a language, lays down a system of definitions 
and rules, founded on scientific principles and good usage, illus- 
trates their nature and design, and enforces their application. 

Principle. A principle in grammar is a peculiar construc- 
tion of the language, sanctioned by good usage. 

Definition. A definition in grammar is a principle of lan- 
guage expressed in a definite form. 

Rule. A rule describes the peculiar construction or circum- 
stantial relation of words, which custom has established for our 
observance. 



'^ English Grammar is the art of speaking and wri- 
ting the English language with propriety. 

Grammar teaches us how to use words in a proper manner. 
The most important use of that faculty called speech, is, to con- 
vey our thoughts to others. If, therefore, we have a store of 
words, and even know what they signify, they wiil be of no real 
use to us unless we can also apply them to practice, and make 



ORTTIOGRAPHy. fl^ 

them ans^^*e^ the purposes for whicn they were invented Gram-^ 
inar^ well understood, enables us to express our thoughts fully 
and clearly ; and, consequently, in a manner which will defy 
the ingenuity of man to give our words any other meaning than 
that which we ourselves intend them to express. To be able to 
speak and write our vernacular tongue with accuracy and ele. 
gance, is, certainly, a consideration of the highest moment. 

Grammar is divided into four parts ; 

1. Orthography, 3. Syntax, 

2. Etymology, 4. Prosody. 
Orthography teaches the nature and powers of 

letters, and the just method of spelling words. 

Orthography means ivord-making, or spelling. It teaches us 
the different kinds and sounds of letters, how to combine them 
into syllables, and syllables into words. 

As this is one of the first steps in the path of literature, I pre- 
sume you already understand the nature and use of letters, and 
the just method of spelling words. If you do, it is unnecessary 
for you to dwell long on this part of grammar, which, though 
very important, is rather dry and uninteresting, for it has noth- 
ing to do with parsing and analyzing language. And, therefore, 
if you can spell correctly, you may omit Orthography, and com- 
mence with Eiynioiogy and Syntax. 

Orthography treats, 1st, of Letters, 2ndly, of Syl- 
lables, and 3dly, of V/ords. 

I. Letters. A letter is the first principle, or 
least part, of a word. 

The English Alphabet contains twenty-six letters. 

They are divided into vowels and consonants. 

A vowel is a letter that can be perfectly sounded ^ 
Uy itself. The vowels are a, e, z, o, u, and some-'" 
times vj and y. W and y are consonants when they 
begin a word or syllable ; but in every other situation 
they are vowels. 

A consonant is a letter that cannot be perfectly 
sounded without the help of a vowel; as, 5, d, /, /. 
All letters except the vowels are consonants. 



20 ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Consonants are divided into mutes and semi-vowels 
The mutes cannot be sounded at all without the 
aid of a vowel. They are &, p^ t, d^ k, and c and ^ 
hard. 

The semi -vowels have an imperfect sound of them- 
selves. They are/, /, m, n, r, v, s, z, x, and c and g 
soft. 

Four of the semi-vowels, namely, I, m, n, r, are called liquids, because 
they readily unite wdth pother consonants^ and flow, as it were, into their 

sounds. 

A diphthong is the union of tivo vowels, pro- 
nounced by a single impulse of the voice ; as oi in 
voice, ou in sound. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels pro- 
nounced in like manner; s^s^eau in beau, ieiv in view. 

A proper diphthong has both the vowels sounded ; as, ou in ounce. An 
improper diphthong has only one of the vowels sounded ; as, oa m boat. 

II. Syllables. A Syllable is a distinct sound, ut- 
tered by a single impulse of the voice ; as, a, an, ant. 

A word of one syllable, is termed a Monosyllable; 
a word of two syllables, a Dissyllable; a word of three 
syllables, a Trisyhable ; a word of four or more sylla- 
bles, a Polysyllable. 

III. Words. Words are articulate sounds, used 
by common consent, as signs of our ideas. 

Words are of two sorts, primitive and derivative. 

A primitive word is that which cannot be reduced 
to a simpler word in the language ; as, man, good. 

A derivative word is that which may be reduced 
to a simpler word; as, manful, goodness. 

There is little or no difference between denvative and compound words. 
The terminations or added syllables, such as ed, es, ess, est, an, ant, en, ence, 
ent, dom, hood, ly, ous,ful, ness, and the like, were, originally, disthict and 
soj)arate words, which, by long use, have been contracted, and made to 
coalesce w4th other words. 



SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 21 



OF THE SOUNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

A. — A has four sounds; the long; as in name, basin; the broad; as in 
ccUlf wall ; the short ; as m fagot, glass ; and the flat, Italian sound ; as in 
bar, farther. 

The improper diphthong, aa, has the short sound of a in Balaam, Canaan, 
Isaac ; and the long sound of « in Baal, Gaal, Aaron. 

The Latin diphthong, ce, has the long sound of e in cenigma, CcEsar, and 
some other words. But msmy authors reject this useless excrescence of 
antiquity, and wnte, enigma, Cesar. 

The diphthong, oi, has the long sound of a; as in pail, sail ; except in 
plaid, said, a^ain, raillery, fountain, Britain, and some others. 

Au is sounded like broad a in taught, like flat a in aunt, like long o in 
hautboy, and like short o in laurel. 

Aw has always the sound of broad a; as in bawl, crawl. 

Ay has the long sound of <z; as in pay, delay. 

B. — B has only one soimd; as in baker, number, chub. 

B is silent when it follows m in the same syllable ; as in lamb, &c. except 
in accurnb, rhomb, and succumb. It is also silent before t in the same sylla- 
ble; as in doubt, debtor, subtle, &c. 

C. — C sounds like k before a, o,u, r, I, t, and at the end of syllables ; aa 
in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract, cloth; victim, flaccid. It has the sound 
of s before e, i, and y ; as in centre, cigar, mercy. C has the somid of sh 
when followed by a diphthong, and is preceded by the accent, either primary 
or secondary ; as in social^ pronunciation, &c. ; and of z in discern, sacrifice, 
sice, suffice. It is mute in arbuscle, czar, czarina, endict, victuals, muscle. 

Ch is commonly sounded like tsh ; as in church, chin ; but in \vords de- 
rived from the ancient languages, it has the sound oik; as in chemist, chorus ; 
and likewise in foreign names, as in Achish, Enoch, In words from the 
French, ch sounds like sh; as in chaise, chevalier; and also like sh when 
preceded hj I or n; as in milch, bench, clinch, &.G. 

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds lilte k; as in arch-angel, except in 
arched, archery, archer, archenemy ; but before a consonant, it sounds like 
tsh ; as in archbishop. Ch is silent in schedule, schism, yacht, drachm. 

D. — D has one uniform sound ; as in death, bandage. It somids like dj or 
j when followed by long u preceded by the accent ; as in educate, verdure. 
It also somids like j in gravSdeur, soldier. 

The tennination, ed, in adjectives and participial adjectives, retains its dis- 
tinct sound ; as, a wick-ed man, a learn-ed man, bless-ed are the meek ; but in 
verbs the e is generally dropped; ^s, passed, walked, flashed, aimed, rolled^ 
&c. which are pronounced, past, walkt, flashi, aimd, rold. 

E. — E has a long sound ; as m scheme, severe ; a short sound ; as in m^en, 
tent; and sometimes the sound of flat a; as in sergeant; and of short i; as 
in yes, pretty, England, and generally in the unaccented terminations, es, 
et, en. 

F. — F has one unvaried sound; as in fancy, muffin; except in off which, 
when micompounded, is pronounced ov. A wive's portion, a calve^s head, 
are improper. They should be, wife^s portion, calfs head. 

G. — G has two sounds. It is hard before a, o, u, I, and r, and at the end 
of a w^ord ; as in gay, go, gun, glory ; bag, snug. It is soft before e, i, and 
y; as in geiiius, ginger, Egypt. Exceptions; get, gewgaw, gimlet, and some 
others. G is silent before » ; as in gnash. 

H. — H has an articulate sound ; as in hat, horse, hull. It is silent after r; 
as in rhetoric, rhul>arb. 



22 SOUxNDS OF THE LETTERS. 

I. — /has a long sound ; as injlfie ; and a short one; as 'mJiTt. Before r it 
is often sounded like u short ; as in first, third ; and in other words, like 
short e; as in birfhj virtue. In some wonis it h&s the sound of long e ; as 
in machine y profile. 

J. — J has the sound of soft g; except in hallelujah, in which it is pro- 
nounced like y. 

K. — K has the sound of c hard, and is used before e, i, and y, where c 
would bo soft; as kept^ skirt, m,urky. It is silent before ?t; as in knife, knell^ 
knocker. 

L. — L has always a soft liquid sound ; as in love, billow. It is often silent; 
as in half, taUc, almond. 

M. — M has always the same sound ; as in rmtrmur, monumental; except in 
comptroller, which is pronounced controller. 

N. — N has two sounds ; the one pure ; a-s in man, net, nohle ; the other a 
compound sound; as in ankle, banquet, distinct, &c., pronounced angkl,- 
bangkwet. N final is silent when preceded by m ; as in hymn, autumn. 

O. — O has a long sound ; as in note, over ; and a short one ; as in not, got. 
It has the sound of u short ; as in son, attorney, doth, does ; and generally in 
the terminations, op, ot, or, on, om, ol, od, &c. 

V.—P has but one uniform sound; as in pin, slipper; except in cupboard, 
clapboard, where it has the somid oi b. It is mute in psalm, Ptolemy, tempt, 
empty, corps, raspberry, and receipt. 

Ph has the sound of / in philosophy, Philip ; and of t? in nephew, Stephen, 

Q. — Q is sounded like k, and is always followed by u pronounced like w; 
as m quadrant, queen, conquest. 

R. — R has a rough sound; as m Rome, river, rage; and a smooth one; 
as in bard, card, regard. In the imaccented termination re, the r is sounded 
after the e; as m fibre, centre. 

S. — 8 has a flat sound like sr ; as in besom, nasal; and, at the beginning of 
words, a sharp, hissing sound ; as in saint, sister, sample. It has the sound 
of sh when preceded by the accent and another 5 or a liquid, and fdllow^ed 
by a diphthong or long u; as in expulsion, censure. S sounds like zh when 
preceded by the accent and a vowel, and followed by a diphthong or long u ; 
as in brasier, usual. It is mute in isle, corps, demesne, viscount. 

T. — T is sounded in take, temper. T before u, when the accent precedes, 
and generally before eou. sounds like tsh ; as, nature, virtue, righteous, are 
pronounced natshure, virtshue, richeus. Ti before a vowel, preceded by the 
accent, has the sound of sh ; as in salvation, negotiation ; except in such words 
as tierce, tiara, &c. and unless an s goes before ; as, question ; and excepting 
also derivatives from words ending in ty ; as in mighty, mightier. 

Th, at the beginnmg, middle, and end of words, is sharp; as in thick, pan^ 
ther, breath. Exceptions ; then, booth, worthy, &c. 

U. — U has three sounds; a long; as in mule, cubic; a short; as in duU^ 
custard; and an obtuse sound ; as in full, bushel. It is pronounced like short 
e in bury ; and like short i in bicsy, business. 

V. — V has uniformly the sound of flat// as in vanity, love. 

W. — W, when a consonant, has its sound, which is heard in wo, beware. 
Wis silent before r ; as in wry, wrap, wrinkle; and also in answer ^ sword, 
&c. Before ^ it is pronounced as if written after the h ; as in why, when, 
what ; — hwy, hwen, hwat. Wnen heard as a vowel, it takes the sound, of u ; 
as in draw, crew, now. 

X. — X has a sharp sound, nke ks, when it ends a syllable with the accent 
on it ; as, exit, exercise ; or when it precedes an accented syllable which 
begins with any consonant except h; as, excuse, extent; but when the fol- 
ic wing accented syllable begins with a vowel or h, it has, generally, a flat 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 23 

Bound, like gz ; as in exert, exhort. X has the sound of Z at the beginning 
of proper names of Greek original ; as in Xanthus, Xenophon, Xerxet* 

Y. — F, when a consonant, has its proper sound; as iii youth, York, yes, 
new-year. When y is employed as a vowel, it has exactly the somid that 
would have in the same situation ; as in rhyme, system, party, pyramid. 

Z. — Z has the sound of flat s ; as m freeze, brazen 

RULES FOR SPELLING. 

Spelling is the art of expressing a word by its^ 
proper letters. 

The following rules are deemed important in practice, al- 
though they assist us in spelling only a small portion of the words 
of our language. This useful art is to be chiefly acquired by 
studying the spelling-book and dictionary, and by strict atten- 
tion in reading. 

Rule i. Monosyllables ending inf, ?, or 5, double the final or 
ending consonant when it is preceded by a single vowel ; a,s, staffs 
mill, pass. Exceptions ; of, if, isy as, has, was, yes, Ms, this, us, 
and thus. 

False Orthography for the learner to correct. — Be thou like the gale that 
moves the gras, to those who ask thy aid. — The aged hero comes forth on 
his staf ; his gray hair glitters in the beam. — Shal mortal man be more just 
than God ? — Few know the value of health til they lose it. — Our manners 
should be neither gros, nor excessively refined. 

And that is not the lark, whose notes do beat 

The vanity heaven so high above our heads : 

T have more care to stay, than wil to go. 

Rule ii. Monosyllables ending in any consonant but f, I, or 
s, never double the final consonant when it is preceded by a single 
vowel ; as, man, hat. Exceptions ; addy ehb, butt, egg, odd, err, 
inn, hunn, purr, and buzz. 

False Orthography. — None ever went sadd from Fiagal. — He rejoiced over 
his sonn. — Clonar lies bleeding on the bedd of death. — Many a trapp is set 
to insnare the feet of youth. 

The weary sunn has made a golden sett, 

And, by the bright track of his golden carr, 

Gives token of a goodly day to-morrow. 

Rule hi. Words ending in y, form the plural of nouns^ the 
persons of verbs, participial nouns, past participles, comparatives, 
and superlatives, by changing y into i, when the y is preceded by 
a consonant; as, spy, spies ; I carry, thou carriest, he carries ; 
carrier, carried ; happy, happier, happiest. 

The present participle in ing, retains the y that i may not be 
doubled ; as, carry, carrying. 



I 



21 ORTHOGRAniY. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances as the 
above, it is not changed into i ; as, hoy, hoys ; I cloy, he cloys ; 
except m the words lay, pay, and say ; from which are ibrmed 
laid, paid, and said ; and their compounds, unpaid, unsaid, &c. 

False Orthography. — Our fancys should be governed by reason. — Thou 
wearyest thyself in vain. — He denyed himself all sinful pleasures. 
Win straiing souls with modesty and love ; 
Cast none av^ay. 
The truly good man is not dismaied by poverty. 
Ere fresh morning streak the east, v^e must be risen to reform yonder 
alhes green. 

Rule iv. When words ending in y, assume an additional syl- 
lable beginning with a consonant, the y, if it is preceded by a con- 
sonant, is commonly changed to i; as, happy, happily, happiness. 

But when y is preceded by a vowel, in such instances, it is very 
rarely changed to i ; as, coy, coyless ; hoy, hoyish ; hoy hood ; joy, 
joyless, joyful 

False Orthography. — His mind is uninfluenced by fancyful humors. — Tho 
vessel was heavyly laden. — When we act against conscience, we become the 
destroiers of our own peace . 

Christiana, mayden of heroic mien ! 

Star of the north ! of northern stars the queen ! 

Rule v. Monosyllables, and words accented on the last sylla- 
ble, ending with a single consonant that is preceded by a single 
vowel, double that consonant when they assume another syllable 
that begins with a vowel ; as, wit, loitty ; thin, thinjiish ; to ahet,an 
abetter. 

But if a diphthong precedes, or the accent is not on the last 
syllable, the consonant remains single ; as, to toil, toiling ; to offer ^ 
an offering ; maid, maiden. 

False Orthography. — The business of to-day, should not be defered till to- 
morrow. — That law is annuled. — When we have outstriped our errors we 
have won the race. — By defering our repentance, we accumulate our sor- 
rows. — The Christian Lawgiver has prohibitted many things which the hea 
then philosophers allowed. 

At summer eve, when heaven*s aerial bow 
Spans vv . h bright arch the glitterring hills below. — 
Thus moi nea the hapless man ; a thunderring sound 
Rolled round the shudderring walls and shook the ground. 

Rule vi. Words ending in double I, in taking ness, less, ly, or 
ful, after them, generally omit one I; di^, fulness, skilless, fully j 
skilful. 

But words ending in any double letter but I, and taking nessy 
less, ly, or ful, after them, preserve the letter double ; as, harmless- 
ness, carelessness, carelessly, stiffly, successful. 



RULES FOR SPELLING. 25 

FaUe Orthography. — A chiiiness generally precedes a fever. — H© is wed 
to dullness. 

The silent stranger stood amazed to see 
Contempt of wealth and willful poverty 
Restlesness of mind impairs our peace. — The road to the blisful regions, ks 
at» open to the peasant as to the king. — The arrows of calumny fall harmles 
ly at the feet of virtue. 

Rule vii. NesSy less, ly, or ful, added to words ending irj 
silent e, does not cut it off; as, paleness, guileless, closely, peace- 
ful : except in a few words ; as, duly, truly, awful* 

False Orthography. — Sedatness is becoming. 
AU these with ceasless praise his works behold. 
Stars rush : and final rain fiercly drives 
tier ploughshare o'er creation ! 

— Natm'e made a pause, 

in aweful pause ! prophetic of her end ! 

Rule viii. When words ending in silent e, assume the term!- 
iiiidon, ment, the e should not be cut off; as, abatement, chastise- 
mcnt, 

Ment, like other terminations, changes y into i when the y is 
preceded by a consonant ; as, accompany, accompaniment ; merry, 
merriment. 

False Orthography. — A judicious arrangment of studies facilitates improv- 
ment. — Encouragment is greatest when we least need it. 
To shun allurmonts is not hard, 
To minds resolv'd, forwarn'd, and well prepared. 

Rule ix. When words ending in silent e, assume tne termi- 
nation, able or ihle, the e should generally be cut off; SiS,blame, 
blamable ; cure, curable ; sense, sensible. But if c or^ soft comes 
before e in the original word, the e is preserved in words com- 
{xounded with able ; as, peace, peaceable ; change, changeable. 

False Orthography. — Knowledge is desireable. — Misconduct is inexcuse 
able. — Our natural dvrfects are not chargable upon us. — We are made to be 
servicable to others as well as to ourselves. 

Rule x. When ing or ish is added to words ending in silent 
fc, the e is almost always omitted ; as, place, placing ; lodge, 
lodging ; slave, slavish ; prude, prudish. 

False Orthography. — Labor and expense are lost upon a droneish spirit. — 
An obligeing and humble disposition, is totally unconnected with a servile 
and cringein^ humor. 

Conscience anticipating time, 

Already rues th* unacted crime. 

One self-approveing hour, whole years outweighs 

Of stupid starers, and of loud huzzas. 

Rulb XI. Compound words are generally spelled In the same 

3 



20 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

manner as the simple words of which they are compounded , 
as, glasshouse, skylight, thereby, hereafter. Many words ending 
in double /, are exceptions to this rule ; as, already,- welfare, tvilful, 
fulfil ; and also the words, wherever, Christmas, lanwias, 4*c. 

False OrtJiography. — The Jew*s pasover was instituted in A. M. 2513. — 
They salute one another by touciiing their forheads. — That which is some- 
tijnes expedient, is not all ways so. 

Then, in the scale of reas'ning life *tis plain, 
There must be, som where, such a rank as man. 
Till hymen brought his lov-delighted hour, 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower. 
The head reclined, the loosened hair. 
The limbs relaxed, the mouniliil air : — 
See, he looks up ; a wofull smile 
Lightens his wo-worn cheek awhile. 

You may now answer the following 
QUESTIONS. 
What is language ? — How is language divided ? — What is natu- 
ral language ? — What are the elements of natural language in 
man ? — Wherein consists the language of brutes ? — What is ar- 
tificial language ? — What is an idea 1 — What are words ?- — What 
is grammar ? — What does Universal grammar explain ? — Where- 
in does Particular grammar differ from universal ? — What is the 
standard of grammatical accuracy ? — What is Philosophical gram- 
mar? — What is Practical grammar? — What is a principle of gram- 
mar ? — A definition ? — A rule ? — What is English grammar ? — 
Into how many parts is grammar divided ? — What does Orthog- 
raphy teach ? 



ETYMOIi®GY AMB SYNTAX. 

LBCTURB II. 

OF NOUNS AND VERBS. 

Etymology treats of the different sorts of words, 
their various modifications, and their derivation. 

Syntax treats of the agreement ana government 
of words, and of their proper arrangement in a sen- 
tence. 

The word Etymology signifies the origin or pedigree of words, 
Syn, a prefix from the Greek, signifies together, Syn-tax, means 
placing together ; or, as applied in grammar, sentence making. 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 27 

The rules of syntax, which direct to the proper choice of words, 
and their judicious arrangement in a sentence, and there oy enable 
us to correct and avoid errors in speech, are chiefly based on 
principles unfolded and explained by Etymology. Etymologi. 
cal knowledge, then, is a prerequisite to the study of Syntax ; but, in 
parsing, under the head of Etymology, you are required to apply 
the rules of Syntax. It becomes necessary, therefore, in a prac- 
tical work of this sort, to treat these two parts of grammar in 
connexion. 

Conducted on scientific principles, Etymology would com- 
prehend the exposition of the origin and meaning of words, and, 
in short, their whole history, including their application to things 
in accordance with the laws of nature and of thought, and the 
caprice of those who apply them ; but to fallow up the current of 
language to its various sources, and analyze the springs from 
which it flows, would involve a process altogether too arduous 
and extensive for an elementary work. It would lead to the study 
of all those languages from which ours is immediately derived, 
and even compel us to trace many words through those lan- 
guages to others more ancient, and so on, until the chain of re- 
search would become, if not endless, at least, too extensive to be 
traced out by one man. I shall, therefore, confine myself to the 
following, limited views of this part of grammar. 

1. Etymology treats of the classification of words. 

2. Etymology explains the accidents or properties peculiar to 
each class or sort of words, and their present modifications. By 
modifications, I mean the changes produced on their endings^ in 
consequence of their assuming different ' relations in respect to 
one another. These changes, such as fruit, fruity, fruit'*; he, 
his, him; write, write*^, write^A, writer, wrofe, written, writiw^, 
writer; a, an; ample, ampl?/, and the like, will be explained 
in their appropriate places. 

3. Etymology treats of the derivation of words; that is, it 
teaches you how one word comes from, or grows out of another. 
For example; from the word speak, come the words speaker/, 
speak e^A, speaks, speakzVi^, s^oke, s])oken, speaker, speaker **, 
speake;-*. These, you perceive, are all one and the same word, 
and all, except the last three, express the same kind of action. 
They differ from each other only in the termination. These 
changes in termination are produced on the word in order to 
make it correspond with the various persons who speak, the num- 
ber of persons, or the time of speaking ; as, T speak, thou spea- 
'st, the man speake//i, or speaks, the men speak, / spoke ; The 
speaker speak* another speaker'* speech. 



28 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The third part of Etymology, which is intimately connected 
with the second, will be more amply expanded in Lecture XIV. 
and in the Philosophical notes ; but I sliall not treat largely of 
that branch of derivation which consists in tracing words to for- 
eign languages. This is the province of the lexicographer, rather 
than of the philologist. It is not the business of him who writes a 
practical, English grammar, to trace words to the Saxon, nor 
to the Celtic, the Greek, the Dutch, the Mexican, nor the Per. 
sian ; nor is it his province to explain their meaning in Latin, 
French, or Hebrew, Italian, Mohegan, or Sanscrit; but it is hia 
duty to explain their properties, their powers, their connexions, 
relations, dependancies, and bearings, not at the period in which 
the Danes made an irruption into the island of Great Britain, nor 
in the year in which Lamech paid his addresses to Adah and 
Zillah, but at the particidar period in which he writes. His words 
are already derived, formed, established, and furnished to his 
hand, and he is bound to take them and explain them as he find? 
them in his day, without any regard to their ancient construction 
and application. 

CLASSIFICATION. 

In arranging the parts of speech, I conceive it to be the legiti- 
mate object of the practical grammarian, to consult practical 
convenience. The true principle of classification seems to be, 
not a reference to essential differences in the primitive mean- 
ing of words, nor to their original combinations, but to the man- 
ner in vjhich they are at present employed. In the early and rude 
state of society, mankind are quite limited in their knowledge, 
and having but few ideas to communicate, a small number of 
words answers their purpose in the transmission of thought. This 
leads them to express their ideas in short, detached sentences, 
requiring few or none of those connectives, or words of transition, 
which are afterwards introduced into language by refinement, 
and which contribute so largely to its perspicuity and elegance. 
The argument appears to be conclusive, then, that every Ian 
guage must necessarily have more parts of speech in its refined^ 
tnan in its barbarous state. 

The part of speech to which any word belongs, is ascertained 
not by the original signification of that word, but by its presem 
manner of meaning, or, rather, the office which it performs in a 
sentence. 

The various ways in which a word is applied to the idea ^vhich 
it represents, are called its manner of meaning. Thus, The 



CLAS6IF1CATJON. 29 

painter dips his faint brush in paint, to paint the carriage. Here. 
the word paint, is first employed to describe the brush which the 
painter uses ; in this situation it is, therefore, an adjective ; sec- 
ondly, to 7ia?ne the mixture employed ; for which reason it is a 
noim ; and, lastly, to express the action performed ; it therefore, 
becomes a verb ; and yet, the meaning of the word is the same 
in all these applications. This meaning, however, is applied in 
different ways ; and thus the same word becomes different parts 
of speech. Richard took water from the water pot, to water the 
plants. 

ETYMOLOGY. 

Etymology treats, first, of the classification of words. 

The English Language is derived chiefly from the Saxon, 
Danish, Celtic, and Gothic ; but in the progressive stages of its 
refinement, it has been greatly enriched by accessions from the 
Greek, Latin, French, Spanish, Italian, and German languages. 

The number of words in our language, afler deducting proper 
names, and words formed by the inflections of our verbs, nouns, 
and adjectives, may be estimated at about forty thousand. 

There are ten sorts of words, called parts of speech, 
namely, the noun or substantive, verb, article, 

ADJECTIVE, PARTICIPLE, ADVERB, PREPOSITION, PRO- 
NOUN, CONJUNCTION, and interjection. 

Thus you perceive, that all the words in the English language 
are included in these ten classes: and what you have to do in 
acquiring a knowledge of English Grammar, is merely to become 
acquainted with these ten parts of speech, and the rules of Syn- 
tax that apply to them. The Noim and Verb are the most im- 
portant and leading parts of speech ; therefore they are first pre- 
sented : all the rest (except the interjection) are either appenda- 
ges or connectives of these two. As you proceed, you will find 
that it will require more time, and cost you more labor, to get a 
knowledge of the noun and verb, than it will to becoirie familiar 
with all the minor parts of speech. 

The principal use of words is, to name things, compare them 
with each other, and express their actions. 

Nonfis, which are the names of entities or things, adjectfves^ 
which denote the comparisons and relations of things by describ- 
mg them, and expressing their qualities, and verbs, which express 
the actions and being of things, are the only classes of word& 

3* 



30 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

necessarily recognised in a philosophical view of grammar. But 
in a treatise which consults, mainly, the practical ad\ antages ol 
the learner, it is believed, that no classification will be found more 
convenient or accurate than the foregoing, which divides words 
into ten sorts. To attempt to prove, in this place, that nothing 
would be gained by adopting either a less or a greater number 
of the parts of speech, would be anticipating the subject. I 
shall, therefore, give my reasons for adopting this arrangement in 
preference to any other, as the different sorts of words are re- 
specti/ely presented to you, for then you will be better prepared 
to appreciate my arguments. 

OF NOUNS. 
A NOUN is the name of any person, place, or thing ; 
as, man, Charleston knoivledge. 

Nouns are oflen improperly called substantives, A substan- 
tive is the name of a substance only ; but a noun is the name 
either of a substance or a quality. 

Nou7ii derived from the Latin word nomen, signifies name. 
The name of any thing* that exists, whether animate or inani 

* The word thinly from the Saxon verb thingianj to think, is ahnost un- 
limited in its meannig. It may be applied to every animal and creature in 
the universe. By the term creature, I mean that which has been created ; 
as, a dog, water, dirt. This word is also frequently applied to ;ictions ; as, 
" To get drunk is a beastly things In this phrase, it signifies ne^" her animal 
nor creature ; but it denotes merely an action ; therefore tliis action is the 
thing. 

NOTES ON PHILOSOPHICAL GRAMMAR. 

Perhaps no subject has, in this age, elicited more patient research, and 
critical investigation of original, constituent principles, formations, and com- 
binations, than the English language. The legitimate j)rovince of philology, 
however, as I humbly conceiv^e, has, in some instances, been made to yield 
to that of philosophy, so far as to divert the attention from the combinations 
of our language which refinement has introduced, to radical elements and 
associations which no way concern the progress of literature, or the essential 
use for which language was uitended. Were this reti'ugressive mode of in- 
vestigating and applying principles, to obtain, among philologists, the ascend 
ency over that which accommodates the use of language to progressive re 
finement, it is easy to conceive the state of barbarism to which society would, 
in a short time, be reduced. Moreover, if what some call the philosophy of 
language, were to supersede, altogether, the province of philology as it ap- 
plies to the present, progressive and refined state of English literature, the 
great object contemplated by the learned, in all ages, namely, the approxi- 
mation of language, in common with every thing else, to that point of perfec- 
tion at which it is the object of correct philology to arrive, would be frustrated. 

The dubious and wildering track struck out by those innovators and vis- 
ionaries who absjn-dly endeavor to teach modern English, by rejecting the 



NOUNS. OOMMON AND PROPER. 31 

mate, or w hich we can see, hear, feel, taste, smell, or think of, is 
a noun. Animal, bird, creature, paper, pen, apple, field, houses 
modesty, virtue, danger, are all nouns. In order that you may 
easily distinguish this part of speech from others, I will give you 
a sign, whidb will be useful to you when you cannot tell it by 
the sense. Any word that will make sense with the before it, is 
a noun. Try the following words by this sign, and see if they 
are nouns : tree, mountain, soul, mind, conscience, understand 
ing. The tree, the mountain, the soul, and so on. You perceive, 
that they will make sense with the prefixed ; therefore you know 
they are nouns. There are, however, exceptions to this rule, for 
some nouns will not make sense with the prefixed. These you 
will be able to distinguish, if you exercise your mind, by their 
making sense oftliemselves; sis, goodness, sobriety, hope, immortality. 

Nouns are used to denote the nonentity or absence of a thing, 
as v/ell as its reality ; as, nothing, naught, vacancy, non-existence, 
invisibility. 

Nouns are sometimes used as verbs, and verbs, as nouns, ac- 
cording to their manner of meaning ; and nouns are sometimes 
used as adjectives, and adjectives, as nouns. This matter will 
be explained in the concluding part of this lecture, where you 
will be better prepared to comprehend it. 

authority and sanction of custom, and by conducting the learner back to the 
original combinations, and the detached, disjointed, and barbarous construc- 
tions of our progenitors, both prudence and reason, as well as a due regard 
for correct philology, impel me to shun. Those modest writers who, by 
bringing to their aid a little sophistry, much duplicity, and a wholesale traffic 
in the swelling phrases, " philosophy, reason, and common sense," attempt 
to overthrow the wisdom of former ages, and show that the result of all the 
labors of those distinguished philologists who had previously occupied the 
field of grammatical science, is nothing but error and folly, will doubtless 
meet the neglect and contempt justly merited by such consummate vanity 
and unblushing pedantry. Fortunately for those who employ our language 
as their vehicle of mental conference, custom will not yield to the specula- 
tive theories of the visionary. If it would, improvement in English litera- 
ture would soon be at an end, and we should be tamely conducted back to 
the Vandalic age. 

As the use of what is commonly called the philosophy of language, is evi* 
dently misapplied by those who make it the test of grammatical certainty, 
it may not be amiss to offer a few conside-Ations with a view to expose the 
fallacy of so vague a criterion. 

All reasoning and investigation w^hich depend on the philosophy of lan- 
guage for an ultimate result, must be conducted a posteriori. Its office, ac- 
cording to the ordinary mode of treating the subject, is to ti-ace language to 
its origin, not for the purpose of determinhig and fixing grammatical associa- 
tions and dependances, such as the agreement, government, and mutual rela- 
tions of words, but in order to analyze combinations wdth a view to develop 
the first principles of the language, and arrive at tlie primitive meaning of 



32 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Nouns are of two kinds, common and proper, 
A Common noun is the name of a sort or species ol 
things; as, man^ treey river. 

A Proper noun is the name of an individual ; as, 
Charles^ Ithaca, Ganges. 

A noun signifying many, is called a collective noun, 
or noun of multitude ; as, the people, the army. 

The distinction between a common and a proper noun, is very 
obvious. For example ; hoy is a common noun, because it is a 
name applied to all boys ; but Charles is a proper noun, because 
it is the name of an individual boy. Although many boys may 
have the same name, yet you know it is not a common noun, for 
the name Charles is not given to all boys. Mississippi is a prop- 
er noun, because it is the name of an individual river } but river 
is a common noun, because it is the name of a species of things, 
and the name river is common to all rivers. 

Nouns which denote the genus, species, or variety of beings 
or things, are always common ; as, tree, the genus ; oak, ash, 
chestnut, poplar, different species ; and red oak, white oak, black 
oak, varieties. The word earth, when it signifies a kind or quan- 
tity of dirt, is a common noun ; but when it denotes the planet 
we inhabit, it is a proper noun. The words person,, place, river, 

words. Now, it is presumed, that no one who has paid critical attention to 
the subject, will contend, that the original import of single words, has any 
relation to the syntactical dependances and connexions of words in gene- 
ral ; — to gain a knowledge of which, is the leading object of the student in 
grammar. And, furthermore, I challenge those who have indulged in such 
useless vagaries, to show^ by what process, with their ow^n systems, they can 
communicate a practical knowledge of grammar. I venture to predict, that, 
if they make the attempt, they will find their systems more splendid in the- 
ory, than useful in practice. 

Again, it cannot rationally be contended, that the radical meaning has any 
efficiency in controlling the signification which, by the power of association, 
custom has assigned to many w^ords ; — a signification essentially different from 
the original import. Were this the case, and were the language now to be 
taught and understood in compliance with the original import of words, it 
would have to undergo a thorough change ; to be analyzed, divided, and sub- 
divided, almost ad injinitum. Indeed, there is the same propriety in assert 
ing, that the Gothic, Danish, and Anglo-Saxon elements in our language, 
ought to be pronounced separately, to enable us to understand our vernacular 
tongue, that there is in contending, that their primitive meaning has an as 
cendency over the influence of the principle of association in changing, and 
the power of custom in determining, the import of words. Many of our 
words are derived from the Greek, Roman, French, Spanish, Italian, and 
German languages ; and the only use we can make of their originals, is tc 
render them subservient to the force of custom in cases in which general 



NOUNS. COMMON AND PROPER. 83 

mountain, lake, &;c. are common ru>uns^ because they are the 
names of whole species, or classes of things containirig many 
sorts ; but the names of persons, places, rivers, mountains, lakes, 
die. dire proper noims, because they denote individuals ; as, Au- 
gustus, Baltimore, Alps, Huron. 

Physician, lawyer, merchant, and shoemaker, are common nouns, 
because these names are common to classes of men. God and 
Lord, when applied to Jehovah or Jesus Christ, are proper ; but 
when employed to denote heathen or false gods, or temporal lords ^ 
they are common. 

The Notes and remarks throughout the work, though of minor 
importance, demand your attend ve and careful perusal. 

NOTES. 

1. When proper noims have an article annexed to them, they are used aftet 
the manner of common, nouns ; as, '' Bohvar is styled the Washington of South 
America." 

2. Common nouns are sometimes used to signify individuals, when articles 
or pronouns are prefixed to them, as, *' The boy is studious; Thai girl is 
discreet." In such instances, they are nearly equivalent to proper nouns. 

3. Common nouns are sometimes subdivided into die following classes : 
Souns of Multitude ; as, The people, the parliament : Verbal or participial 
nouns ; as. The beginning, reading, writing ; and Abstract noims, or the 
names of qualities abstracted from their substances ; as, knowledge, virtue, 
goodness. Lest the student be led to blend the idea of abstract nouns with 
that of adjectives, both of which denote qualities, a farther illustration ap- 
pears to be necessaiy, in order to mark the distinction between these two 
parts of speech. An abstract noun denotes a quality considered apart (that 
is, abstracted) /?-om the substance or being to which it belongs; but an ad- 
jective denotes a qnality joined (adjected) to the substance or being to which 
it belongs Thus, whiteness and white both denote the same quality ; but we 

usage has not varied from the primitive signification. Moreover, let the ad- 
vocates of a mere philosophical investigation of the language, extend their 
system as far as a radical analysis will warrant them, and, wnth Home Tooke. 
not only consider adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections, as 
abbre^^ations of noims and verbs, but, on their own responsibility, apply 
them, in teaching the language, in compliance tciih their radical import, and 
what would such a course avail them against. the power of custom, and the 
influence of association and refinement ? Let them show me one gramma- 
rian, produced by such a course of instruction, and they will exhibit a " philo- 
sophical" miracle They might as well undertake to teach architecture, by 
having recoui^e to its origin, as represented by booths and tents. In addi- 
tion to this, when we consider the gi'eat number of obsolete words, fi-om 
which many now in use are derived, the original meaning of which cannot 
b"^ ascertained, and, also, the multitude whose signification has been changed 
by the principle of association, it is preposterous to think, that a mere philo- 
sophical mode of investigating and teaching the language, is the one by which 
its si«:nificancy can be enforced, its correctness determined, its use compre- 
hended, and its improvement extended. Before what c-iunmonlv passes hr 
a philosophical manner of developing the language can successfully be made 
the medium through which it can be comprehended in all its present com- 
binations, relations, and dependances it must undergo a thorough retrogien 



J4 ETYMOLOGY ANJ> SYNTAX. 

Speak of whiteness as a distinct object of thought, while we use the word white 
always in reference to the noun to which it belongs ; as, white paper, white 
nouse. 

4. Some authors have proceeded to still more minute di\nsions and sub- 
divisions of nouns ; sach, for example, as the following, which appear to be 
more complex than useful : Natural nouns, or names of things formed by 
nature ; as, man, beast, water, air : 2. Artificial nouns, or names of things 
formed by art ; as, book, vessel, house : 3. Personal nouns, or those which 
stand for human beings ; as, man, woman, Edwin : 4. Neuter nouns, or 
those which denote things inanimate ; as, book, field, mountain, Cincinnati. 
The following, however, is quite a rational divi-don : Material nouns are the 
names of things formed of matter ; as, stone, book : Immaterial nouns are 
the names of things having no substance ; as, hope, immortality. 

To nouns belong gender, person, number, and case. 

GENDER. 

Gender is the distinction of sex. Nouns have three 
genders, the masculine, the feminine, and the neuter. 

The masculine gender denotes males; as, a man, a boy. 

The feminine gender denotes females ; as, a wo- 
man, a girL 

The neuter gender denotes things without sex; as, 
a haty a stick. 

Neuter means neither : therefore neuter gender signifies nei- 
ther gender ; that is, neither masculine nor feminine. Hence> 

sive change, in all those combinations, relations, and dependances, even to 
the last letter of the alphabet. And before we can consent to this radical 
modification and retrograde ratio of the English language, we must agree to 
revive the customs, the habits, and the precise language of our progenitors, 
the Goths and Vandals. Were all the advocates for the introduction of such 
philosophical gi-ammars into common schools, at once to enter on their pil- 
grimage, and recede into the native obscurity and barbarity of the ancient 
Britons, Ficts, and Vandals, it is believed, that the cause of learning and re- 
finement would no.*^^ suffer greatly by their loss, and that the good sense of the 
present age, would not allow many of our best teachers to be of the party. 
The last consideration which I shall give a philosophical manner of inves- 
tigating and enforcing the English language, is, that by this mode of analy- 
zing and reducing it to practice, it cannot, in this age, be comprehended as the 
medium of thought. Were this method to prevail, our present literal lan- 
guage would become a dead letter. Of what avail is language, if it can not 
be understood ? And how can it be accommodated to the understanding, 
unless it receive the sanction of common consent ? Even if we admit tlial 
such a manner of unfolding the principles of our language, is more rational 
and correct than the ordinary, practical method, I think it is clear that such 
a mode of investigation and development, does not meet the necessities and 
convenience of ordinary learners in school. To be consistent, that system 
which instructs by tracing a few of our words to their origin, must unfold 
the whole hi the same manner. But the student in common schools and 
academies, cannot afford time to stem the tide of language up to its source. 



N01;NS. GENDEK. 35 

neuter gender means no gender. Strictly speaking, then, as there 
are but two sexes, nouns have but two genders ; but for the sake 
of practical convenience, we apply to them three genders, by 
calling that a gender which is no gender. The English and the 
pure Persian, appear to be the only languages which observe, in 
the distinction of sex, the natural division of nouns. — The gen- 
ders of nouns are so easily known, that a farther explanation of 
them is unnecessary, except what is given in the following 

NOTES. 

1. The same noun is sometimes masculine and feminine, and sometimes 
masculine or feminine. The noun parents is of the masculine and feminine 
gender. The nouns parent, associate, neighbor, servant, friend, child, bird, 
fish, 4*c. if doubtful, are of the mascaline or feminine gender. 

2. Some nouns naturally neuter, are, Avben used figuratively, or personified 
converted into the masculine or feminine gender. Those nouns are generally 
rendered masculine, which are conspicuous for the attributes of imparting 
or communicating, and which are by nature strong and efficacious ; as, the 
sun, tim-e, death, sleep, winter, ^-c. Those, again, are generally feminine, 
which are conspicuous for the attributes of containiug or bringing forth, or 
which are very beautiful, mild, or amiable ; as, the earth, moon, church, boat^ 
vessel, city, country, nature, ship, soul, fortune, vi^rtue, hope, spring, peace, ^c. 
This pnnciple for designating the sex of a personified object, which is quite 
rational, is generally adhered to in the English language *, but, m some in- 
stances, the poet applies the sex according to his fancy. 

The masculine and feminine genders are distinguished in three ways : 
1. By different words; as, 
Masculine, Feminine. Masciilnie. Feminine 

Bachelor maid Boy girl 

Boar sow Brother sister 



and thei'e dive to the bottom of the fomitaia for knowledge. Such labor 
ought not to be required of him. His object is to become, not a philosophi- 
cal antiquarian, but a practical grammarian. If I comprehend the design 
(if they have any) of our modern philosophical writers on this subject, it ia 
to make grammarians by inculcating a few general pnnciples, arising out of 
the genius of the language, and the nature of things, which the learner, by 
the exercise of his reasoning powers, must reduce to practice. His ov^^^ 
judgment, independent of grammar rules, is to be his guide in speaking and 
writing coiTectly. Hence, many of them exclude from their systems, all 
exercises in what is called false Syntax. But these profound philological 
dictators appear to have overlooked the important consideration, that the 
great mass of mankind, and especially of boys and girls in common schools, 
can never become philosophers ; and, consequently, can never comprehend 
and reduce to practice their metaphvsical and obscure systems of grammar. 
1 vi'ish to see children treated as reasoning beings. But there should be a 
medium in all things. It is, therefore, absurd to instiiict children as if they 
were already profound philosophers and logicians. 

To demonstrate the utility, and enforce the necessity, of exercising the 
learner in correcting /aZse Syntax, I need no other argument than the inter- 
esting and undeniable fact, that Mr. Murray's labors, in this department, have 
effected a complete revolution in the English language, in point of verba, 
accuracy. Who does not know, that the best writers of this day, are not 
guilty o{ one grammaTir*al inaccuracy, whore t^iose auJ^hors who wrote beforo 



36 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Buck 


doe 


Lord 


lady 


Bull 


cow 


Man 


woman 


Cock 


hen 


Master 


mistress 


Dog 


bitch 


Milter 


spawnei 


Drake 


duck 


Nephew 


niece 


Earl 


countess 


Ram 


ewe 


Father 


mother 


Sijiger 


songstress or 


Friar 


nun 




ainger 


Gander 


goose 


Sloven 


slut 


Hart 


roe 


Son 


daughter 


Horse 


mare 


Stag 


hind 


Husband 


wife 


Uncle 


auQt 


King 


queen 


Wizard 


witch 


Lad 


lass 


Sir 


madam 




2. By a difference in termiiiation ; 


as, 


Abbot 


abbess 


Elector 


elecd'ofis 


Actor 


actress 


Embassador 


embassadress 


Administrator 


administratrix 


Emperor 


empei^ss 


Adulterer 


adulteress 


Enchanter 


enchantress 


Ambassador 


ambassadress 


Executor 


executrix 


Arbiter 


arbitress 


Fornicator 


fornicatress 


Auditor 


auditress 


God 


goddess 


Author 


authoress 


Governor 


govemest 


Baron 


baroness 


Heir 


heiress 


Benefactor 


benefactress 


Hero 


heroine 


Bridegroom 


bride 


Host 


hostess 


Canon 


canoness 


Hunter 


huntress 


Caterer 


cateress 


Inheritor 


inheritress oi 


Chante^ 


chan tress 




inheritrix 


Conductor 


conductress 


Instructer 


instructress 


Count 


countess 


Jew 


Jewess 


Czar 


czarina 


Lion 


lioness 


Deacon 


deaconess 


Marquis 


marchioness 


Detractor 


deti-actress 


Mayor 


mayoress 


Director 


directress 


Pati'on 


patroness 


Duke 


dutchess 


Peer 


peeress 



Mr. Murray flourished, are guilty o^ five 7 And what has produced thisim 
portant change for the better ? Ask the hundreds of thousands who ha\e 
studied " Mr. Murray's exercises in False Syntax." If, then, this view of 
the subject is correct, it follows, that the greater portion of our philosophical 
grammars, are far more worthy the attention of literary connoisseurs, than 
of the great mass of learners. 

Knowing that a strong predilection for philosophical grammars, exists in 
the minds of some teachers of this science, I have thought proper, for the 
gratification of such, to interspers-e through the pages of this work, under the 
head of *' Philosophical Notes," an entire system of grammatical princi- 
ples as deduced from what appears to me to be the most rational and consist- 
ent philosophical investigations. They who prefer this theory to that exhib- 
ited in the body of the work, are, of course, at liberty to adopt it. 

In general, a philosophical theory of grammar will he found to accord vnth 
the practical theory embraced in the body of this uwrh. Wherever suck 
agreement exists, the system contained in these Notes will be deficirnt, anil 
this deficiency may be supplied by adopting the principles contained in fh^ 
other parts of the work. 





NOUNS. - 


—PERSON 


• 




Poet 


poetess 


Sultan 




sultaness or 


Priest 


priestess 






sultana 


Prince 


princess 


Tiger 




tigress 


Prior 


prioress 


Testator 




testatrix 


Prophet 


prophetess 


Traitor 




traitress 


Proprietor 


proprietress 


Tutor 




tutoress 


Protector 


protecti-ess 


Tyrant 




tyranness 


Shepherd 


shepherdess 


Victor 




victress 


Songster 


songstress 


Viscount 




viscountess 


Sorcerer 


sorceress 


Votary 




votaress 


Suiter 


suitress 


Widower 




widow 




3. By prefixing 


another word ; as. 


A cock-sparrow 




A lien 


-sparrow 


A man-servant 




A mai 


id-ser\'^ant 


A he-goat 






A she 


-goat 


A he- bear 






A she 


-bear 


A male-child 




A female-child 


Male-descendants 




Female-descendants 



37 



PERSON. 

Person is a property of the noun and pronoun 
"vhich varies the verb. 

The first person denotes the speaker. 

The second person denotes the person or thing 
spoken to ; as. " Listen, earth .'" 

The tliird person denotes the person or thing 
spoken of; as, " The earth thirsts.'' 

Nouns have but two persons, the second and third. When a 
man speaks, the pronoun I or we is ahvays used ; therefore nouns 
can never be in the Ji7\st person. In examples like the following, 

OF THE PHILOSOPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF WORDS. 

According to the method in which philosophical investigations of language 
have generally been conducted, all our words should be reduced to two 
classes ; for it can be easily showii, that from the noun and verb, all the other 
parts of speech have sprung. Nay, more. They may even be reduced to 
one. Verbs do not, in reality, express actions ; but they are intrinsically the 
mere names of actions. The idea of action or being communicated by them, 
as well as the meaning of words in general, is merely inferential. The princi- 
ple of reasoning assumed by the celebrated Home Tooke, if carried to its full 
extent, would result, it is believed, in proving that v/e have but one part of 
speech. 

Adnouns or adjectives were originally nouns. Sioeet, red, white, are the 
names of qualities, as well as sweetness, redness, whiteness. The foi'mer differ 
from the latter only in their manner of signification. To denote that the 
name of some quality or substance is to be used in connexion with some 
other name, or, that this quality is to be aUribided to some other name, we 
sometimes affix to it the termination en, ed, or y ; which signifies give, iddj 
or join. When we employ the words wooden, woollen, wealth^/, grassy, the 
terminations en and y, by their ovvn intrinsic meaning, give notice that wo 

4 



38 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

some philologists suppose the noun to be in the Jirst person : — '' This 
may certify, that I, Jonas Taylor, do hereby give and grant, " 
dec. But it is evident, that the speaker or writer, in introducing 
his own name, speaks of hmiself ; consequently the noun is of 
the third person. 

If you wish to understand the persons of nouns, a little sober 
thought is requisite ; and, by exercising it, all difficulties will be 
removed. If I say, my son, have you seen the young man ? you 
perceive that the noun son is of the second person, because 1 ad- 
dress myself to him ; that is, he is spoken to ; but the noun man 
is of the third person, because he is spoken of. Again, if I say. 
young man, have you seen my son ? man is of the second person, 
and son is of the third. 

" Hast thou left thy blue course in the heavens, golden-haired 
sun of the sky ? " 

"• Father, may the Great Spirit so brighten the chain of friend- 
ship between us, that a child may find it, when the sun is asleep 
in his wig-wam behind the western waters. " 

" Lo, earth receives him from the bending skies ! 
Sink down, ye mountains, and, ye valleys, rise ! '' 
" Eternal Hope, thy glittering wings explore 
Earth's loneliest bounds, and ocean's wildest shore." 

In these examples, the nouns, sun, father, miountains, valleys, 
and hope, are of the second person, and, as you will hereafter 
team, in the nominative case independent. Course, heavens, sky, ' 
Spirit, chain, friendship, child, sun, wig-wam, waters, earth, skies, 
wings, earth, bounds, ocean, and shore, are all of the third person. 

intend to give, add, or join, the names of some other substances in which are 
found the properties or quaUties of wood, wool, wealth, or grass. 

Pronouns are a class of nouns, used instead of others to prevent their dis- 
agreeable repetition. Participles are certain forms of the verb. Articles, 
interjections, adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions, are contractions of ab- 
breviations of nouns and verbs. An (a, ane, or one) comes from ananad, to 
add, to heap. The and that, from the Anglo-Saxon verb thean, to get, as- 
sume. Lo is the imperative of look ; fy, o^Jian, to hate ; and welcome means, 
it is well that you are come. In comes from the Gothic noun inna, the inte- 
rior of the body ; and about, from hoda, the first outward boundary. Through 
or thorough is the Teutonic noun thuruh, meaning passage, gate, door. From 
is the Anglo-Saxon noun frum, beginning, source, author. He came from 
(beginning) Batavia. i/* (formerly vv^ritten gif, give, gin) is the imperative 
of the Anglo-Saxon verb gif an, to give. I will remain if (give or grant that 
fact) he will (remain.) But comes from the Saxon verb beon-utan, to be 
out. I informed no one but (be-out, leave-out) my brother. 

This brief view of the subject, is sufficient to elucidate the manner in 
which, according to Home Tooke's principles, the ten parts of speech are 
reduced to one. But I am, by no means, disposed to concede, that this is th© 
D^e princi})le of classification ; nor that it is any more philosophical or ror 



NOUNS. NUMBER. 39 

NUMBER. 

Number is the distinction of objects, as one or 
more. Nouns are of two numbers, the singular and 
the plural. 

The singular number implies but one ; as, a book. 

The plural number implies more than one; as, books 

NOTES. 

1. Some nouns are used only in the singular form ; as, hemp, flax, barley, 
wheat, pitch, gold, sloth, piide, honesty, meekness, compassion, (fee. ; others 
only in the plural form ; as, bellows, scissors, ashes, riches, snuffers, tongs, 
thanks, wages, embers, ides, pains, vespers, &c. 

2. Some words are the same in both numbers ; as, deer, sheep, swine ; and, 
also, hiatus, apparatus, series, species. 

3. The plural number of nouns is generally formed by adding s to the sin- 
gular ; as, dove, doves ; face, faces ; but sometimes we add es in the plural : 
as, box, boxes ; church, churches ; lash, lashes ; cargo, cargoes. 

4. Nouns ending in/or/e, are rendered plural by a change of that tenni- 
nation mto ves ; as, half, halves ; wife, wives ; except giief, relief, reproof, 
and several others, w^hich form their plurals by the addition of s. Those 
ending in^, have the regular plural ; as, ruff, ruffs ; except staff, staves. 

5. Nouns endmg in y m the singular, wdth no other vowel in the same s;^!- 
lable, change it into ies m the plural ; as, beauty, beauties ; fly, flies. But 
the y is not changed, where there is another vowel in the syllable ; as, key, 
keys ; delay, delays ; attorney, attorneys ; valley, valleys ; chimney, chimneys. 

6. Mathematics, metaphysics, politics, optics, ethics, pneumatics, hydraulics^ 
&c. are construed either as singular or plural nouns. 

7. The word news is always singular. The nouns means, alms, and amends, 
though plural in form, may be either singular or plural in signification. An- 

tional than one which allows a more practical division and arrangement of 
words. What has been generally received as ''philosophical grammar," 
appears to possess no stronger claims to that imposing appellation than our 
common, practical grammars. Query. Is not Mr. Mun^ay's octavo graiQ 
mar more worthy the dignified title of a ''Philosophical Grammar/' ihan 
Home Tooke's " Diversions of Purley," or Wilhani S. Cardell's treatises on 
language ? What constitutes a philosophical treatise, on this, or on any other 
subject ? Wherein is there a display of philosophy in a speculative, etymo- 
logical performance, which attempts to develop and explain the elements 
and primitive meaning of words by tracing them to their origin, superior to 
the philosophy employed in the development and illustration of the princi- 
ples by which we are governed in applying those words to their legitimate 
purpose, namely, that of forming a coiTect and convenient medium by means 
of which we can communicate our thoughts ? Does philosophy consist in 
ransacking the mouldy records of antiquity, in order to guess at the ancient 
construction and signification of single words ? or have such investigations, 
in reality, any thing to do with grammar 7 

Admittuig that all the words of our language include, in their original 
signification, the import of nouns or names, and yet, it does not follow, that 
they noio possess no other powers, and, in their combinations and connexions 
b^ sentences, are em.ployed for no other purpose, than harely to n/ime objects 
The fact of the case is, that words are variously c<>mbir<ed and applied, to 
answer the distinct and dlveFRified purposes of naming objects, asserting 



40 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



tipodes, credenda, literati, and mitiutise, are always plural. Bandit is now 
used as the singular of Banditti. 

8. The following nouns form their plurals not according to any general 
rule ; thus, man, men ; woman, women ; child, children ; ox, oxen ; tooth, 
teeth ; goose, geese ; foot, feet ; mouse, mice ; louse, lice ; brother, brothers 
or brethren ; cow, cows or kiiie ; penny, pence, or pennies when the coin 
is meant; die, dice for play ^ dies, for coining; paa and fish, pease and fish 
when the species is meant, but peas smd fishes when we refer to the number ; 
as, six peas, ten fishes. 

9. The folio whig compounds form their plurals thus: handful, handful s- 
cupful, cupfuls ; spoonful, spoonfuls;— brother-in-law, brothers-in-law; court 
martial, courts-martial. 

The following words form their plurals according to the rules of the lan- 
guages from which they are adopted. 



Singular. 
Antithesis 
Apex 

Appendix 

Arcanum 
Automaton 
Axis 
Basis 

Beau 
Calx 

Cherub 

Crisis 

Criterion 

Datum 

Di«eresis 

Desideratum 

Effluvium 

Ellipsis 

Emphasis 

Encomium 

Erratum 



Plural. 

antitheses 

apices 
( appendixes or 
( appendices 

arcana 

auto)nata 

axes 

basf!S 
( beaux or 
I beaus 

calces or 

calxes 
^ cherubim or 
\ cherubs 

crises 

criteria 

data 

difereses 

desiderata 

effluvia 

ellipses 

emphases 
( encomia or 
\ encomiums 

errata 



Singular, 
Genius 
Genus 
Hypothesis 
Ignis fatuus 

Index 

Lamina 
Magus 

Memorandum 

M 3 tamorphosii 

Parenthesis 

Phenomenon 

Radius 

Stamen 

Seraph 

Stimulus 
Stratum 
Thesis 
Vertex 

Vortex 



Plural. 

genii* 

genera 

hypotheses 

ignes fatui 

indices or 

indexest 

lamina) 

magi 

memoranda or 

men ^randums 

metamorphoses 

parentheses 

phenomena 

radii or 

radiuses 

stamina 

seraphim or 

sei-aphs 

stimuli 

strata 

theses 

vertices 

vortices or 
vortexes 



* Genii, imaginary spirits : geniuses, persons of great mental abilities. 
t Indexes, when pointers or tables of contents are meant: indices, whtSD 
referring to algebraic quantities. 

truths, pointing oul and limiting objects, attributing qualities to objects, con- 
necting objects, and so on ; and on \h\sfact is founded the true philosophical 
principle of the classification of words. Hence, an arrangement of words 
into class-'s according to this principle, followed by a development and illus- 
tration oi the principles and rules that regulate us in the proper use and ap- 
plication of words in oral and written discourse, appears to approximate as 
near to a true definition oi philosophical grarnmar, as any I am capable of giving. 
Noims, or the names of the objects of our perceptions, doubtless consti- 
tutor i the original class of words ; (if I may be allowed to assume such a hy- 
pothesis as an original class of words;) but the ever-active principle of 



NOUNS.- —CASE. 41 

CASE. 
Case, when applied to nouns and pronouns, means 
the different state, situation, or position they have in 
relation to other words. Nouns have three cases, the 
nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

I deem the essential qualities of case^ in English, to consist, not 
in the changes or injleciions produced on nouns and pronouns, out 
in the various offices which they perform in a sentence, by as- 
suming different positions in regard to other words. In accord- 
ance with this definition, these cases can be easily explained on 
reasoning principles, founded in the nature of things. 

Now, five grains of common sense will enable any one to com- 
prehend what is meant by case. Its real character is extremely 
simple ; but in the different grammars it assumes as many mean- 
ings as Proteus had shapes. The most that has been written on 
it, however, is mere verbiage. What, then, is meant by case ? 
In speaking of a horse, for instance, we say he is in a good case, 
when he is fat, and in a bad case, when he is lean, and needs 
more oats ; and in this sense we apply the term case to denote the 
state or condition of the horse. So, v*^hen we place a noun before 
a verb as actor or subject, we say it is in the nominative case ; 
but when it follows a transitive verb or preposition, we say it has 
another case ; that is, it assumes a new 'position or situation in the 
sentence : and this we call the oljective case. Thus, the hoy 
gathers fruit. Here the boy is represented as acting. He is, 
therefore, in the nominative case. But when I say, Jane struck 
the toy, I do not represent the boy as the actor, but as the object 
of the action. He is, therefore, in a new case or condition. And 
when I say. This is the hoy^s hat, I do not speak of the boy either 
as acting or as acted upon ; but as possessing something : for 
which reason he is in the possessive case. Hence, it is clear, that 
nouns have three cases or positions. 

As the nominative and objective cases of the noun are insepa- 

association, soon transformed nouns into verbs^ by making them, when em- 
ployed in a particular manner, expressive of affirmation. This same princi 
pie also operated in appropriating names to the purpose of attributing qual 
ities to other names of objects; and in this way w^as constituted the class of 
words called adjectives or attributes. By the same principle were formed 
all the other classes. 

In the following exposition of English grammar on scientific principles, I 
shall divide words into seven classes; Nouns or Names, Verbs, AdiecfiveSy 
Adnouns, or Attributes, Adverbs, Prepositions, Pronouns, and Conjunctions, or 
Connectives. 

For an explanation of the noun, refer to the body of the wcM-k 

'4* 



42 ETVMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

rably connected with the verb, it is impossible for you to under- 
stand them until you shall have acquired some knowledge of this 
part of speech. I will, therefore, now give you a partial descrip- 
tiDU of the verb in connexion with the noun ; which will enable 
me to illustrate the cases of the noun so clearly, that you ma} 
easily comprehend their nature. 

In the formation of language, mankind, in order to hold converse 
with each other, found it necessary, in the first place, to give names 
to the various objects by which they were surrounded. Hence the 
origin of the first part of speech, which we denominate the noun 
But merely to name the objects which they beheld or thought of, 
was not sufficient for their purpose. They perceived that these 
objects existed, moved, acted, or caused some action to be done. 
In looking at a man, for instance, they perceived that he lived, 
walked, ate, smiled, talked, ran, and so on. They perceived that 
plants grow, flowers bloom, and rivers flow. Hence the necessity 
of another part of speech, whose office it should be to express these 
existences and actions. This second class of words we call 

VERBS. 

A Verb is a word which signifies to be, to do, or 
to SUFFER ; as, I am ; I rule ; I am ruled. 

Verbs are of three kinds, active, passive, and 
neuter. They are also divided into regular, irregular, 
and defective. 

The term vert is derived from the Latin word verhum, which 
signifies a word. This part of speech is called a verb or word, 
because it is deemed the most important word in every sentence : 
and without a verb and nominative, either expressed or implied, 
no sentence can exist. The noun is the original and leading 
part of speech ; the verb comes next in order, and is far more 
complex than the noun. These two are the most useful in the 
language, and form the basis of the science of grammar. The 
other eight parts of speech are subordinate to these two and, as 
you will hereafter learn, of minor importance. 

For all practical purposes, the foregoing definition and aivisiun 
of the verb, though, perhaps, not philosophically correct, will be 
found as convenient as any other. 1 adopt them, therefore, to be 
consistent with the principle, that, in arranging the materials of 
this treatise, I shall not alter or reject any established definition, 
rule, or principle of grammar, unless, in my humble judgment, 
some practical advantage to the learner is thereby gained. The 
following, some consider a good definition. 

A VEHB is a word which expresses qfirmaumi. 



\^ERBS. ACTIVE AND NEUTER. 43 

An active verb expresses action ; and 
The nominative case is the actor, or subject of the 
verb ; as, John tvrites. 

In this example, which is the verb ? You know it is the word 
writes, because this word signifies to do ; that is, it expresses ac- 
Hon, therefore, according to the definition, it is an active verb. 
And you know, too, that the noun John is the actor, therefore 
John is in the nominative case to the verb writes. In the expres- 
sions, The man walks — The boy plays — Thunders roll — War- 
riors fight — you perceive that the words walks, plays, roll, and 
Uglit, are active verbs ; and you cannot be at a loss to know, that 
the nouns man, boy, thunders, and warriors, are in the no7ninative 
case. 

As no action can be produced without some agent or moving 
cause, it follows, that every active verb must have some actor or 
agent. This actor, doer, or producer of the action, is the nomina- 
tive. Nominative, from the Latin nornino, literally signifies to 
name; but in the technical sense in which it is used in grammar, 
it means the noun or pronoun which is the subject of affirmation. 
This subject or nominative may be active, passive, or neuter, as 
hereafter exemplified. 

A neuter verb expresses neither action nor passion, 
but being, or a state of being ; as, John sits. 

Now, in this example, John is not represented as an actor, but, 
as the subject of the verb sits, therefore John is in the nominative 
case to the verb. And you know that the word sits does not ex- 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Plausible arguments may be advanced, for rejecting neuter and passive 
verbs ; but they have been found to be so convenient in practice, that the 
theoiy which recognises them, has stood the test of ages. If you tell the 
young learner, that, in the follov^ing expressions, The church rests on its 
foundation ; The book lies on the desk ; The boys remain (are) idle, the 
nouns chiLTck, hook, and boys, are represented as acting, and, therefore, the 
verbs rests, lies, remain, and are, are active, he will not believe you, because 
there is no action that is apparent to his senses. And should you proceed 
farther, and, by a labored and metaphysical investigation and development 
of the laws of motion, attempt to prove to him that "■ every portion of matter 
is influenced by different, active principles, tending to produce change," and, 
therefore, every thing in universal nature is always acting, it is not at all 
probable, that you could convince his understanding, in opposition to the 
clearer testimony of his senses. Of what avail to learners is a theory which 
they cannot comprehend ? 

Among the various theorists and speculative writers on philosophical^ram 
mar, the ingenious Home Tooke stands pre-eminent ; but, unfortunately, his 
principal speculations on the verb, have never met tho public e-j^e William 



44 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

press apparent action^ but a condition of heing ; that is, it repre 
sents John in a particular state of existence ; therefore sits is a 
neuter verh. In speaking of the neuter gender of nouns, I in- 
formed you, that neuter means neither; from which it follows, that 
neuter gender implies neither gender ; that is, neither masculine 
nor feminine. Hence, by an easy transition of thought, you 
learn, that neuter, when applied to verbs, means neither of the 
other two classes ; that is, a neuter verb is one which is neither 
active nor passive. In these examples. The man stands — The 
lady lives — The child sleeps — The world exists — the words stands, 
lives, sleeps, and eodsts, are neuter verbs; and the nouns, man, 
lady, child, and world, are all in the noininative case, because each 
is the subject of a verb. Thus you perceive, that when a noun 
is in the nominative case to an active verb, it is the actor ; and 
when it is nominative to a neuter verb, it is not an actor, but the 
subject of the verb. 

Some neuter verbs express being in general ; as. The man is ; 
Kingdoms exist. Others express being in some particular state ; 
as. The man stands, sits, lies, or hangs, 

I will now give you two signs, which will enable you to dis- 
tinguish the verb from other parts of speech, when you cannot 
tell it by its signification. Any word that will make sense with 
to before it, is a verb. Thus, to run, to write, to smile, to sing, 
to hear, to ponder, to live, to breathe, are verbs. Or, any word 
that will conjugate, is a verb. Thus, I run, thou runnest, he runs ; 
I write, thou writest, he writes ; I smile, &c. But the words, 
boy, lady, child, and world, will not make sense with to prefixed 
— to boy, to lady, to world, is nonsense. Neither will they con- 

S. Cardell has also rendered himself conspicuous in the philological field, by 
taking a bolder stand than any of his predecessors. His view of the verb is 
novel, and ingeniously supported. The folio wmg is the substance of his theory 

OF THE VERB. 

A VERB is a word which expresses action ; as, Man exists ; 
Trees grow ; W siters flow ; MountSims sta7id ; lam. 

All verbs are active, and have one object or more than one, expressed or 
implied. The pillar stands ; that is, it keeps itself in an erect or standing 
posture ; it upholds or sustains itself in that position. They are ; i. e. they 
air themselves, or breathe air ; they inspirit , vivify ^ or uphold themselves by 
inhaling air. 

Many verbs whose objects are seldom expressed, always have a personal 
or verbal one implied. The clouds move ; i. e. move themselves along. The 
troops marched twenty miles a day ; i. e. marched themselves. The moon 
shines : — The moon shines or sheds a shinijisr^ sheen, lustrej or brightness 
The sparrow flies :— flies or takes a. flight. Talkers talk or speak icords or 
talk; Walkers y^alk walking-s or walks ; The rain rains r«i»; Sitters sit or 
told sittings or sessions. 



VERBS. ^NUMBER AND PERSON. 45 

jugate — I lady, thou ladiest, &c. is worse than nonsense. Hence 
you perceive, that these words are not verbs. There are some 
exceptions to these rules, for verbs are sometimes used as nouns. 
This will be explained by and by. 

To verbs belong number^ person^ mood^ and tense. 

At present I shall speak on'v of the number and person of 
verbs ; but hereafter I will give } ou a full explanation of all their 
properties. And permit me to inform you, that I shall not lead 
you into the intricacies of the science, until, by gradual and easy 
progressions, you are enabled to comprehend the principles in- 
volved in them. Only such principles will be elucidated, as you 
are prepared to understand at the time they are unfolded before 
you. You must not be too anxious to get along rapidly ; but en- 
deavor to become thoroughly acquainted with one principle, be- 
fore you undertake another. This lecture will qualify you for 
the next. 

Number and person of verbs. You recollect, that the nom- 
inative is the actor or subject, and the active verb is the action per- 
formed by the nominative. By this you perceive, that a very 
Ultimate connexion or relation exists between the nominative case 
and the verb. If, therefore, only one creature or thing acts, only 
one action, at the same instant, can be done ; as. The gi?^! writes. 
The nominative girl is here of the singular number, because it 
signifies but one person ; and the verb writes denotes but one ac- 
tion, which the girl performs ; therefore the verb writes is of the 

To prove that there is no such thing as a neutei' verb, the following appear 
to be the strongest arguments adduced. 

1. No portion of matter is ever in a state of perfect quiescence ; but the 
component parts of every thing are at all times '* influenced by different, ac- 
tive principles, tending to produce change." Hence, it follows, that no be- 
big or thing can be represented in a nevter or non-acting state. 

This argument supposes the essential character of the verb to be identified 
with the primary laws of action, as unfolded by the principles of pliysical 
science. The correctness of this position may be doubted ; but if it can be 
clearly demonstrated, that every particle of matter is always in motion, it 
loes not, by any means, follow, that we cannot speak of things in a state of 
piiescence. What is false in fact may be correct in grammar. The point 
contested, is not whether things always act, hut whether, when we assert or af- 
firru something respecting them, we always represent them as acting. 

2. Verbs were originally used to express the motions or changes of things 
w^hich produced obvious actions, and, by an easy transition, were afterward 
ipplied, in the same way, to things whose actions were not apparent. 

This assumption is untenable, and altogether gi-atuitous. 

3. Verbs called neuter are used in the imperative mood ; and, as this mood 
commands some one to dp something, any verb which adopts it, must be ac 
dve. Thus, in the common place phrases, " Be there quickly; Stand out(^ 
my way ; Sit or lie farther." 



46 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Singular number, agreeing with its nominative girL When the 
nominative case is j^lural, the verb must be plural ; as^ girls lorite. 
Take notice, the singular verb ends in 5, but the noun is generally 
plural when it ends in s; thus, The girl writes — the girls write. 

Person, strictly speaking, is a quality that belongs not to verhs^ 
but to nouns and pronouns. We say, however, that the verb 
must agree with its nominative in person, as well as in number ; 
that is, the verb must be spelled and spoken in such a mannei 
as to correspond with the^?'^^, second, or third person of the noun 
or pronoun which is its nominative. 

I will now show you how the verb is varied in order to agree 
with its nom-inative in number and person. I, Thou, He, She, 
It ; We, Ye or You, They, are personal pronouns, I is of the 
first person, and singular number ; Thou is second person, smg,; 
He, She, or It, is third per. sing.; We is first per. plural; Ye or 
You is second per. plural; They is third per. plural. These 
pronouns are the representatives of nouns, and perform the same 
office that the nouns would for which they stand. When placed 
before the verb, they are, therefore, the no7ninatives to the verb. 

Notice, particularly, the different variations or endings of the 
verb, as it is thus conjugated in the 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. Per. I walk, 1. Per. We Walk, 

2. Per. Thou wdiikest, 2. Per. Ye or you walk, 

3. Per. He walk^, or ^ 3. Per. They walk, or ) 

the boy walk^, > the boys walk. ) 

or waXketh. ) 

It is admitted that these verbs are here employed in an active sense ; but 
it is certain, that they are not used according to their proper, literal meaning. 
When I tell a man, literally, to standi sit, or lie, by inoving he vi^ould disobey 
me ; but when I say, " Stand out of my way," I employ the neuter verb 
stand, instead of the active verb move or go, and in a correspondent sense. 
My meaning is, Move yourself out of my way ; or take your stand some- 
where else. This, however, does not prove that stand is properly used. If 
we choose to overstep the bounds of custom, we can employ any word in the 
language as an active-transitive verb. Be, sit, and lie, may be explained in 
the same manner. 

4. Neuter verbs are used in connexion with adverbs which express the man- 
ner of action. They must, therefore, be considered active verbs. The child 
sleeps soundly ; He sits genteelly ; They live contentedly and happily together. 

The class of verbs that are never employed as active, is small. By using 
adverbs in connexion with verbs, we can fairly prove that some verbs are not 
active. It is incorrect to say, I am happily ; They were peacefully ; She re- 
mains quietly ; The fields appear greenly. These verbs in their common 
acceptation, do not express action ; for which reason we say, I am happy ; 
Thoy aro vsac^fiU &c. But in the expressionB, The child sleeps soundly ' 



VERBS. NUMBER AND PliRSON. 47 

This display of the verb shows you. that whenever it ends in 
est, it is of the second person singular ; but when the verb ends 
in 5, or etli, it is of the third person sir.gular. Walkest, ridest, 
standest, are of the second person singular ; and walks or walketh, 
rides or I'ideth, stands or standeth, are of the third person singular. 

1 have told you, that when the nominative is singular number,- 
the verb must be ; when the nominative is plural, the verb must 
be ; and when the nominative is first, second, or third person, the 
verb must be of the same person. If you look again at the fore- 
going conjugation of walk, you will notice that the verb varies 
its endings in the singular, in order to agree in form with the 
first, second, and third person of its nominative ; but in the *plu- 
ral it does not vary its endings from the first person singular. 
The verb, however, agrees in sense with its nominative in the 
plural, as well as in the singular. Exercise a little mind, and 
you will perceive that agreement and government in language do 
not consist merely in the form of words. Now, is it not clear, 
that when I say, I walk, the verb walk is singular, because it ex- 
presses but one action ? And when I say. Two men walk, is it 
not equally apparent, that walk is plural, because it expresses two 
actions ? In the sentence. Ten men walk, the verb walk denotes 
ten actions, for there are ten actors. Common sense teaches you, 
that there must be as many actions as there are actors ; and that the 
verb, when it has no form or ending to show it, is as strictly plu- 
ral, as when it has. So, in the phrase, We walk, the verb walk 
is first person, because it expresses the actions performed by the 
speakers : Ye or you walk, the verb is second person, denoting 

She sits gracefully/ ; They live happily/ and contentedly ; we employ the verbs 
sleeps, sits, and live, in an active sense. When no action is intended, v^e say, 
They live happy and contented. 

If, on scientific principles, it can be proved that those verbs generally de- 
nominated neuter, originally expressed action, their present, accepted mean- 
ing will still oppose the theory, for the generality of mankind do not attach 
to them the idea of action. 

Thus I have endeavored to present a brief but impartial abstract of the modem 
theory of the verb, leaving it with the reader to estimate it accordmg to its 
value. 

To give a satisfactory definition of the verb, or such a one as shall be fomid 
scientifically correct and unexceptionable, has hitherto bafiled the skill, and 
ti'anscended the learning, of our philosophical writers. If its essential quali- 
ty, as is generally supposed, is made to consist in expressing affirmation^ it 
remains still to be defined when a verb expresses affirmation. In English, 
and in other languages, words appropriated to express affirmation, are of tea 
used without any such force ; our idea of affirmation, in such instances, being 
the mere inference of custom,. 

In the sentence, — •' Think, love, and hate, denote moral actions,'^ the words 
think, love, and hate, are nouns, because they are mere names of actions. So, 
when I say, " John write is an irregular verb," the word write is a 



4S ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the actions of the persons spoken to ; third person, They walk 
The verb, then, when correctly written, always agrees, in seiise, 
with its nominative in number and person. 

At present you are learning two parts of speech, neithei 
of which can be understood without a knowledge of the other. 
It therefore becomes necessary to explain them both in the same 
lecture. You have been already informed, that nouns have three 
cases ; the nominative, the possessive, and the objective. 

Possessive Case. The possessive case denotes the 
possessor of something ; as, This is John^s horse. 

This expression implies, that John is the oioner or possessoi 
of the horse ; and, that horse is the pi^operty which he posses-^^es. 

When I say, These are the men's, and those, the boys^ hats, 
the two words, '' boys' hats,'' plainly convey the idea, if they 
have any meaning at all, that the boys own or possess the hats. 
"Samuel Badger sells hoys^ hats." Who owns the hats? Mr. 
Badger. How is that fact ascertained ? Not by the words, 
" boys' hats," which, taken by themselves, imply, not that they 
are Mr, Badger^s hats, nor that they are for boys, but that they 
are hats of, or helonging to, or possessed by boys. But we infer 
from the loords connected with the phrase, " boys' hats," that the 
boys are not yet, as the phrase literally denotes, in the actual 
possession of the hats. The possession is anticipated. 

In the phrases, fine hats, coarse hats, high-crowned hats, broads 
brimmed hats, woollen, new, ten, some, these, many hats, the words 
in italics, are adjectives, because they restrict, qualify, or define 
the term hats ; but the term boys^ does not describe or limit the 
meaning of hats. Boys,'' therefore, is not, as some suppose, an 
adjective. 

" The slaved master." Does the slave possess the master ? 
Yes. The slave has a master. If he has him, then, he possesses 
him ;— he sustains that relation to him which v/e call possession. 

noun ; but when I say, '^ John, write your copy," write is called a verb. 

Why is this word considered a noun in one construction, and a verb in the 
other, wiien both constructions, until you pass beyond the w^ord write, are 
exactly alike ? If write does not express action in the former sentence, nei- 
ther does it in the latter, for, in both, it is introduced in the same manner 
On scientific principles, write must be considered a noun in the latter sen 
tence» for it does not express action, or make an affirmation ; but it merely 
names the action which I wish John to perform, and affirmation is the infe- 
rential meaning. 

The verb in the infinitive, as well as in the imperative mood, is divested 
of its affirmative or verbal force. In both these moods, it is always present- 
ed in its noun- state. 

If, aftftr dinner, I say to a servant, ** Wzne,^^ he infers, that I wish him to 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSINO. 4t9 

A noun in the possessive case, is always known by its having 
an apostrophe, and generally an s after it; thus, JoJm^s hat; 
the hoi/^s coat. When a plural noun in the possessive case, ends 
in s, the apostrophe is added, but no additional s ; as, " Boys* 
hats; Eagles^ wings." When a singular noun ends in ss, the 
apostrophe only is added ; as, " For goodness* sake ; for right- 
emisness* sake ;" except the word witness ; as, " The witnesses tes- 
timony.'' When a noun in the possessive case ends in ence^ 
the s is omitted, but the apostrophe is retained ; as, " For con- 
science* sake." **•= 

Now please to turn back, and read over this and the preceding 
lecture three times, and endeavor, not only to understand, but, 
also, to remember^ what you read. In reading, proceed thus : 
read one sentence over slowly, and then look off the book, and 
repeat it two or three times over in your mind. After that, take 
another sentence and proceed in the same manner, and so on 
through the whole lecture. Do not presume to think, that these 
directions are of no real consequence to you ; for, unless you fol- 
low them strictly, you need not expect to make rapid progress. 
On the other hand, if you proceed according to my instructions, 
you will be sure to acquire a practical knowledge of grammar 
in a short time. — When you shall have complied with this requi- 
siti-jn, you may commit the following order of parsing a noun, 
and the order of jparsing a verb ; and then you will be prepared 
to parse or analyze the following examo-^s. 

ANALYSIS, OR PARSING. 

Do you recollect the meaning of the word analysis ? If you 
do not, I will explain it : and first, I wish you to remember, that 
analysis is the reverse of synthesis. Synthesis is the act of com- 
bining simples so as to form a whole or compound. Thus, in 

bring me wine ; but all this is not said. If I say, Bring some winey he, in 
like manner, understands, that I wish him to bring me wine ; but all that is 
expressed, is the name of the action, and of th^ obiect of the action. In fact, 
as much is done by inference, as by actual ex pression, in every branch oi 
language, for thought is too quick to be wholly transmitted by words. 

It is generally conceded, that the termination of our verbs, est, etk, .«, edf 
and, also, of the other parts of speech, were originally separate w^ords of dis- 
tinct meaning ; and that, although they have been contracted, and, by tho 
refinement of language, have been made to coalesce with the words in con- 
nexion with which they are employed, yet, iu their present character of ter- 
minations, they retain their primitive meaning and force. To denote that a 
verbal name was employed as a verb, the Saxons affixed to it a verbalizing 
adjunct; thus, the (to take, hold) was the noun-state of the verb; and when 
they used it as a verb, they added the teiTnination an .* thus, the<T?i. Tb« 
termination addt^d, was a sign rhat o/Jirmaftjn v^'Ufi in^xsnacd. The same 



50 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

putting together letters so as to form syllables, syllables so as tc 
form words, words so as to form sentences, and sentences ^o as to 
form a discourse, the process is called synthetic. Analysis, on 
the contrary, is the act of decomposition ; that is, the act of sepa- 
rating any thing compounded into its simple parts, and thereby 
exhibiting its elementary principles. Etymology treats of the 
analysis of language. To analyze a sentence, is to separate 
from one another and classify the different words of which it is 
composed ; and to analyze or parse a word, means to enumerate 
and describe all its various properties, and its grammatical rela-^ 
tions with respect to other words in a sentence, and trace it through 
all its inflections or changes. Perhaps, to you, this will, at first, 
appear to be of little importance ; but, if you persevere, you will 
hereafter find it of great utility, for parsing will enable you to 
detect, and correct, errors in composition. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Noun, is — a noun, and 
why ? — common, proper, or collective, and why ? — - 
gender, and why ? — person, and why ? — number, and 
why ? — case, and why ? — Rule : — decline it. 

The order of parsing a Verb, is — a verb, and why ?- 
active, passive, or neuter, and w^hy ? — if active — tran- 
sitive or intransitive, and why? — {{passive — ho wis it 
formed? — regular, irregular, or defective, and why ?— 
mood, and why ? — tense, and why ? — person and num- 
ber, and why? — with what does it agree? — Rule: — 
conjugate it. 

I will now parse two nouns according to the order, and, in so 
doing, by applying the definitions and rules, I shall answer al 
those questions given in the order. If you have perfectly com- 

procedure has been adopted, and, in many instances, is still practised, in onr 
language. An, originally affixed to onr verbs, in the progress of refinement, 
was changed to en, and finally dropped. A few centuries ago, the plmal 
nnmber of om- verbs w^as denoted by the termination e7i ; thus, they ivcr "tn, 
they loven; but, as these teiTninations do not supersede the necessity of ex 
pressing the subject of afiinnation, as is the case in the Latin and Greek ver])s, 
they have been laid aside, as unnecessary excrescences. For the same rea- 
son, we might, without any disparagement to the language, dispense with 
the terminations of our verbs in the singular. 

In support of the position, that these terminations were once separate 
words, we can trace niany of them to their orighi. To denote the feminine 
gender of some nonii'^, we ofiix es^s ; as, heirfss, instructress. Ess is a con- 
traction of the Hebrew i}i>!ir, rssa, a uMnale. Of our verbs, the termination 



NOUNS AND YEIIBS. I^ARSING. 4.1 

mitted the oider of parsing a noun and verb, you may proceed 
with me; Lut, recollect, you cannot parse a verb in fully until 
you shall have had a more complete explanation of it. 

JoJm's hand trembles, 

JohVs is a noun, [because it is] the name of a person — proper, 
the name of an individual — masculine gender, it denotes a male — 
third person, spoken of — singular number, it implies but one — 
and in the possessive case, it denotes possession — it is governed by 
the noun " hand," according to 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the noun it possesses. 

Declined — Sing. nom. John, poss. John's, obj. John. Plural — 
nom. Johns, poss. Johns', obj. Johns. 

Hand is a noun, the name of a thing — common, th6 name of a 
sort or species of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing with- 
out sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but 
one — and in the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of 
the verb " trembles," and governs it agreeably to 

Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb : — that is, the 
nominative determines the number and person of the verb. 

Declined — Sing. nom. hand, poss. hand's, obj. hand. Plur. 
nom. hands, poss. hands', obj. hands. 

Trembles is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — third person, singular number, because the nom- 
inative "hand " is with which it agrees, according to 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

You must not say that the verb is of the third person because it is 
spoken of. The verb is never spoken of; but it is of the third 
person, and singular or plural number, because its nominative is. 

Conjugated — First pers. sing. I tremble, 2 pers. thoutremblest, 3. 
pers. he trembles, or, the hand trembles. Plural, 1 pers. we trem- 
ble, 2 pers. ye or you tremble, 3 pers. they or the hands tremble. 

est is a contraction of doest^ eth, of doetk, s, of does. We say, thou dost or 
doest love ; or thou lovest ; i. e. loxe-dost, or love-docst. Some believe the^e 
terminations to be contractions of havest, haveth, has. We affix ed, a con- 
ti-action of dede, to the present tense of verbs to denote that the action nam- 
ed, is, dedc^ did, doed, or done. 

To and doy from the Gothic noun taui, signifying act or effect, are, accord- 
ing to Home Tooke, nearly alike in meaning and force ; and when the cus- 
tom of affixing some more ancient verbalizing^ adjunct, began to be dropped, 
its place and meaning were generally supplied by prefixing one^ of these. 
When I say, " I am gomg to walk,'' the verbal or affirmative force is convey- 
ed by the use of to, meaning the same as do ; and walk is employed merely 



52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

^ Government, in language, consists in the power 
which one word has over another, in causing that 
other word to be in some particvlar casey number, 
persoriy mood, or te7ise. 

ILLUSTRATION. 

Rule 3. The nominative case governs the verb. 

If you employ the pronoun /, which is of the first person, sin- 
gular number, as the nominative to a verb, the verb must be of 
the first pers. sing, thus, I smile ; and when your nominative is 
second pers. sing, your verb must be ; as, thou smile^^ Why, 
in the latter instance, does the ending of the verb change to est ? 
Because the nominative changes, And if your nominative ia 
third person, the verb will vary again ; thus, he smiles, the man 
smiles. How clear it is, then, that the nominative governs the 
verb ; that is, the nominative has power to change the form and 
meaning of the verb, in respect to num. and person. Govern- 
ment, thus far, is evinced in the form of the words, as well as 
in the sense. 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

It is improper to say, thou hear^ the men hears. Why im- 
proper ? Because hear is first pers. and the nominative tliou is 
second pers. hears is »i.. ^ilar, and the nom. men is plural. Rule 
4th says. The verb must agree with its noyninative. The expres- 
sions should, therefore, be, thou heare^^, the men hear ; and then 
the verb would agree with its nominatives. But why must the 
verb agree with its nominative ? Why must we say, thou talk- 
est, the man talk^, men talk ? Because the genius of our lan- 
guage, and the comm.on consent of those who speak it, require 
such a construction : and this requisition amounts to a lata or rule. 
This rule, then, is founded in tJie nature of things, and sanctioned 
by good usage. 

Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is governed 
by the noun which it possesses. 

It is correct to say. The mari eats, he eats ; but we cannot say, 
the man dog eats, he dog eats. Why not ? Because the man is 

as a verbal name ; that is, I assert that I shall do the act which I name by 
the word walk, or the act of walking. 

Perhaps such speculations as these will prove to be more curious than 
profitable. If it be made clearly to appear, that, on scientific principles, 
whenever the verbal name is unaccompanied by a verbalizing adjunct, it is 
in the noun-state, and does not express affirmation, stiU this theory would be 
very inconveni'^nt in practice. 

I shall resume this subject in Lecture XI. 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSmO. 53 

here represented as the possessor, and dog, the property, or ^te^ 
possessed ; and the genius of our language requires, that when 
we add to the possessor, the thing which he is represented as pos- 
sessing, the possessor shall take a particular form to show its ca^e, 
or relation to ilie property ; thus, The man^s dog eats, his dog eats. 
You perceive, then, that the added noun, denoting the thing pos- 
sessed, has power to change the form of the noun or pronoun de- 
noting the possessor, according to Rule 12. thus, by adding dog, 
in the preceding examples, man is changed to man'^s, and he, to 
his. 

Now parse the sentence which I have parsed, until the manner 
is quite familiar to you ; and then you will be prepared to ana- 
lyze correctly and systematically, the following exercises. When 
you parse, you may spread the Compendium before you ; and, if 
you have not already committed the definitions and rules, you 
may read them on that, as you apply them. This mode of pro- 
cedure will enable you to learn all the definitions and rules by 
applying them to practice. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Rain descends — Rains descend — Snow falls — Snows fall — 
Thunder rolls — Thunders roll — Man's works decay — Men's la- 
bors cease — John's dog barks — Eliza's voice trembles — Julia's 
sister's child improves — Peter's cousin's horse limps. 

In the next place, I will parse a noun and a neuter verb, which 
verb, you will notice, differs from an active only in one respect. 

^^ Birds repose on the branches of trees. " 

Birds is a noun, the name of a thing or creature — common, the 
name of a genus or class — masculine and feminine gender, it 
denotes both males and females — third person, spoken of — plural 
number, it implies more than one — and in the nominative case, 
it is the subject of the verb '' repose," and governs it according 
to Rule 3. The nominative case goverris the verb. Declined — 
Sing. nom. bird, poss. bird's, obj. bird. Plural, nom. birds, poss. 
birds', obj. birds. 

Repose is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it express- 
es neither action nor passion, but a state of being — third person, 
plural number, because the nominative " birds" is with which it 
agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. The verb must agree with its noiri* 
7iaiive in number and person. 

Declined — 1. pers sing. I repose, 2. pers. thou reposest, 3. 
pers. he reposes, or the bird reposes. Plur. 1. pers. we repose, 
2. pers. ye or you repose, 3. pers. they repose, or birds rej_*ose. 



54 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Now parse those nouns and neuter verbs that are distinguished 
by italicSy in the following 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The hook lies on the desk — The cloak Jiangs on the wall — > 
Man's days are few — CatJwtor^s warriors sleep in death — Caltho 
reposes in the narrow house — Jocund day stands tiptoe on the 
misty mountain tops. The sunbeams rest on the grave where her 
beauty sleeps. 

You may parse these and the preceding exercises, and all that 
follow, ^re or six times over, if you please. 

OBJECTIVE CASE.— ACTIYE-TRANSITIVE VERBS. 

The objective case expresses the object of an action 

or of a relation. It generally follows a transitive 

verb, a participle, or a preposition. 

A noun is in the objective case when it is the object of some, 
thing. At present I shall explain this case only as the object of 
an action ; but when we shall have advanced as far as to the 
preposition, I will also illustrate it as the object of a relation. 

An active verb is transitive when the action passes 
over from the subject or nominative to an object ; as, 
Richard strikes John. 

Transitive means passing. In this sentence the action of the 
verb strikes is transitive^ because it passes over fiom the nomina- 
tive Richard to the object John ; and you know that the noun 
Jo^.m is in the objective case, because it is the object of the action 
expressed by the active-transitive verb strikes. This matter is 
very plain. For example: Gallileo invented the telescope. Now 
it is evident, that Gallileo did not exert his powers of invention, 
without some object in view. In order to ascertain that object, pui 
the question, Gallileo invented what ? The telescope. Telescope^ 
then, is the real object of the action, denoted by the transitive 
verb invented ; and, therefore, telescope is in the objective case. 
If I say, The horse kicks the servant — Carpenters build houses 
— Ossian wrote poems — Columbus discovered America — you 
readily perceive, that the verbs kicks, build, wrote, and discovered, 
express transitive actions ; and you canuQt be at a loss to tell 
which nouns are in the objective case : — they are servant, houses, 
poems, and America. 

The nominative and objective cases of nouns are generally known 
by the following rule: the nominative does something; the ob- 
jective has sometJiing done to it. The nominative generally omes 



VERBS. TRANSITIVE AND INTRANSITl V^£. 55 

before the verb ; and the objective, after it. When 1 say, George ^ 
struck the servant, George is in the nominative, and servant is in 
the objective case ; but, when I say, The servant struck George, 
servant is in the nominative case, and George is in the objective. 
Thus you perceive, that Case means the different state or situa- 
tion of nouns with regard to other words. 

It is sometimes very difficult to tell the case of a noun. I 
shall, therefore, take up this subject again, when I come to givQ 
you an explanation of the participle and preposition. 

Besides the three cases already explained, nouns are sometimes 
m the nominative case independent, sometimes in the nominative 
case absolute, sometimes in apposition in the same case, and 
sometimes in the nominative or objective case after the neuter 
to be, or after an active-intransitive or passive verb. These cases 
are illustrated in Lecture X. and in the 21 and 22 rules of Syntax. 

ACTIVEJNTRANSITIVE VERBS. 

An active verb is transitive^ when the action ter- 
minates on an object : but 

An active verb is intransitive^ when the action does 
not terminate on an object ; as, John walks. ^. 

You perceive that the verb walks^ in this example, is intransi- 
tive, because the action does not pass over to an object ; that is, 
the action is confined to the agent John, The following sign will 
generally enable you to distinguish a transitive verb from an m* 
transitive. Any verb that will make sense with the words a 
thing, or a person, after it, is transitive. Try these verbs by the 
sign, love, lielp, conquer, reach, subdue, overcome. Thus, you can 
say, I love a person or ihi7ig — I can help a person or thing — and 
so on. Hence you know that these verbs are transitive. But 
an intransitive verb will not make sense with this sign, which fact 
will be shown by the following examples : smile, go, come, play^ 
hark, walk, fly. We cannot say, if we mean to speak English, 
[ smile a person or thing — 1 go a person or thing : — hence you per 
ceive that these verbs are not transitive, but intransitive. 

If you reflect upon these examples for a few moments, you will 
.have a clear conception of the nature of transitive and intransi- 
tive verbs. Before I close this subject, hov/ever, it is necessary 
farther to remark, that some transitive and intransitive verbs express 
what is called a mental or moral action ; and others, a corporeal 
or physical action. Verbs expressing the different affections or 
operations of the mind, denote moral actions ; as, Brutus loved 



56 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

his country ; James hates vice ; We believe the tale ; — to repent^ 
to relenty to think, to reflect, to mourn, to muse. Those expressing 
the actions produced by matter, denote physical actions ; as, The 
dog hears the bell ; Virgil urroie the ^nead ; Columbus discover- 
ed America ; — to see, to feel, to taste, to smell, to run, to talk, to fly, 
to strike. In the sentence, Charles resembles his father, the verb 
resembles does not appear to express any action at all ; yet the 
construction of the sentence, and the office which the verb per- 
forms, are such, that we are obliged to parse it as an active-tran- 
sitive verb, governing the noun father in the objective case. 
This you may easily reconcile in your mind, by reflecting, that 
the verb has a direct reference to its object. The following verbs 
are of this character : Have, own, retain ; as, I have a book. 

Active intransitive verbs are frequently made transitive. When ' 
I say. The birds fly, the verb fly is z/ztransitive ; but when I say. 
The boy flies the kite, the verb fly is transitive, and governs the 
noun kite in the objective case. Almost any active intransitive 
verb, and sometimes even neuter verbs, are used as transitive. 
The horse walks rapidly ; The boy runs swiftly ; My friend lives 
well ; The man died of a fever. In all these examples the verbs 
are mtransitive ; in the following they are transitive : The man 
walks his horse ; The boy ran a race ; My friend lives a holy 
life ; Let me die the death of the righteous. 

The foregoing development of the character of verbs, is deem- 
ed sufficiently critical for practical purposes ; but if we dip a 
little deeper into the verbal fountain, we shall discover qualities 
which do not appear on its surface. If we throw aside the veil 
which art has drawn over the real structure of speech, we shall 
find, that almost every verb has either a personal or a verbal ob- 
ject, expressed or implied. Verbal objects, which are the effects 
ox productions resulting from the actions, being necessarily im- 
plied, are seldom expressed. 

The fire burns. If the fire burns, it must burn ^vood, coal, tal- 
low, or some other combustible substance. The man laughs. 
Laughs what? Laughs laughter or laugh. They walk; thai 
IS, They walk or take walks. Rivers flow (move or roll them- 
selves or their waters) into the ocean. 

" I sing the shady regions of the west." 

" And smile the wrinkles from the brov>^ of asre." 

The child wepi itself sick ; and then, by taking (or sleeping) a 

snort nap, it slept itself quiet and well again. *' lie will soon sleep 

his everlasting sleep ;'' that is, " He will sleep the sleep of death."" 

Thinkers think thoughts ; Talkers talk or employ words, talh 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PARSING. ^'^7 

OT Speeches ; The rain rains rain, " Upon Sodom and Gomorrah 
the Lord rained fire and hrimstone,^^ "I must go the whole 
length.^' " I shall soon go the ivay of all the earth." 

Now please to turn back again, and peruse this lecture attent- 
ively ; after which you may paree, systematically, the following 
exercises containing nouns in the three cases, and active tran- 
sitive verbs. 

The printer prints books. 

Prints is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it express- 
es action — transitive, the action passes over from the nominative 
" printer " to the object " books " — third pers. sing. numb, be- 
cause the nominative printer is with which it agrees. 

Rule 4. The verb must agree with its nominative case in number 
and person . 

Declined — 1. pers. sing. I print, 2. pers. thou printest, 3. pers. 
he prints, or the printer prints, and so on. 

Books is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the name of a 
sort of things, — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — third 
pers. spoken of — plur. num. it implies more than one — and i*n the 
objective case, it is the object of the action, expressed by the ac- 
tive-transitive verb " prints, " and is governed by it according to 

Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case. 

The noun books is thus declined — Sing. nom. book, poss. book's, 
obj. book — Plur. nom. books, poss. books', obj. books. 

Rule 20. Transitive verbs govern the objective case ; that is, 
they require the noun or pronoun following them to be in that 
case ; and this requisition is government. Pronouns have a par- 
ticularybrm to suit each case ; but nouns have not. We cannot 
say, She struck he ; I gave the book to they. Why not ? Be- 
cause the genius of our language requires the pronoun following 
a transitive verb or preposition {to is a preposition) to assume that 
form which we call the objective form or case. Accordingly, the 
construction should be, She strurk him ; I gave the book to them. 
— Read, again, the illustration of " government" on page 52. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

'Nom. case. Trans, verb. Poss. case. Obj. case. 

Julius prints childrens' primers. 

Harriet makes ladies' bonnets. 

The servant beats the man's horse. 

The horse kicks the servant's master. 

The boy struck that man's child. 

The child lost those boys' ball. 

The tempest sunk those merchants'vessels. 



68 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



No7n, case. 


Trails, verh. 


Poss. case. 


Ohj, case. 


The gale 


sweeps 


the mountain's 


brow. 


Pope 


translated 


Homer's 


Illiad. 


Cicero 


procured 


Mile's 


release. 


Alexander 


conquered 


Darius' 


army. 


Perry 


met 


the enemy's 


fleet. 


Washington 


obtained 


his country s 


freedom. 



Note 1. The words the, that, those, and his, yea need not parse 
2. A noun in the possessive case, is sometimes governed by a nomi under 
stood; as, Julia's lesson is longer than John's [lesson.] 

As you have been analyzing nouns in their three cases, it be- 
comes necessary to present, in the next place, the declension ol 
nouns, for you must decline every noun you parse. Declension 
means putting a noun through the different cases : and you will 
notice, that the possessive case varies from the nominative in its 
termination, or ending, but the objective case ends like the nom- 
inative. The nominative and objective cases of nouns, must, 
therefore, be ascertained by their situation in the sentence, or by 
considering the office they perform. 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

SING. PLUR. SING. PLUR. 

Nom, king kings Nam, man men 

Poss, king's kings' Poss. man's men's 

Obj. king. kings. Obj. man. men . 

Now, if you have parsed every word in the preceding exam- 
ples, (except the, thai, those, and his,) you may proceed with me 
and parse the examples in the following exercises, in which are 
presented nouns and active-intransitive verbs. 
" My Jlock increases yearly." 

Flock is a noun, a name denoting animals — a noun of multi- 
tude, it signifies many in one collective body — masculine and 
feminine gender, denoting both sexes — third person, spoken of — 
singular number, it denotes but one flock — and in the nominative 
case, it is the active agent of the verb " increases," and governs 
it, according to Rule 3. J'he nominative case governs the verb, 
(Decline it.) 

Increases is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not pass over to an 
object — of the third person, singular number, because its nomi- 
native " flock " conveys unity of idea ; and it agrees with " flock '^ 
agreeably to 

Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea,musi 
have a verh or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 



r^OTJNS AND VERBwS. PAR&mrf, W 

" The divided multitude hastily disperse,'^ 

Multitude is a noun, a name that denotes persons — a collective 
noun, or noun of multitude, it signifies many — masculine and 
feminine gender, it implies both sexes — third person, spoken of^ — 
singular number, it represents but one multitude, or collective 
body; (but in another sense, it is plural, as it conveys plurality 
of idea, and, also, implies more individuals than one ;)— and in 
the nominative case, it is the actor and subject of the verb " dis- 
perse,'^ which it governs, according to Rule 3. The noin. case 
governs the verb. — Declined.— Sing. nom. multitude, poss. multi- 
tude's, obj. multitude — Plur. nom. multitudes, poss. multitudes', 
obj. multitudes. 

Disperse is a verb, a word that signifies to do — active, it ex- 
presses action — intransitive, the action does not terminate on an 
object — third person, plural number, because its nominative " mul- 
titude" conveys plurality of idea ; and it agrees with " multi- 
tude" agreeably to 

Rule 11. A noun of Tiiultiiude conveying plwality of idea, 
must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the plural. 

Rules 10, and 11, rest on a sandy foundation. They appear 
not to be based on the principles of the language ; and, therefore, 
it might, perhaps, be better to reject than to retain them. Their 
application is quite limited. In many instances, they will not 
apply to nouns of multitude. The existence of such a thing as 
^' unity or plurality of idea," as applicable to nouns of this class, 
is doubtful. It is just as correct to say, " The meeting was di 
vided in its sentiments," as to say, *' The ineeting loere divided in 
their sentiments." Both are equally supported by the genius of 
the language, and by the power of custom. It is correct to say, 
either that, "The fleet ivere dispersed ;" " The council were unan- 
imous;" "The council were divided;" or that, " The ^^e^ 2(?a5 
dispersed ;" " The council was unanimous ;'^ " The council was 
divided." But, perhaps for the sake of euphony, in some in- 
stances, custom has decided in favor of a singular, and in others, 
of a plural construction, connected with words of this class. Foi 
example ; custom gives a preference to the constructions, " My 
people do not consider;" ^^ The peasa7iiry go barefoot;" "The 
flock is his object ;" instead of, " My people doth not consider ;" 
" The peasantry goes barefoot ;" " The flock are his object." In 
instances like these, the application of the foregoing rules may be 
of some use ; but the constructions in which they do not apply, 
are probably more numerous than those in which they do. 



60 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 



Nom, case. 


Intran, verb. 


Nom. case. 


Iniran, verl. 


Men 


labor. 


The sun 


sets. 


Armies 


march. 


The moon 


rises. 


Vessels 


sail. 


The stars 


twinkle. 


Birds 


fly. 


The rain 


descends. 


Clouds 


move. 


The river 


flows. 


Multitudes 


perish. 


The nation 


mourns. 



Your improvement in grammar depends, not on the number of 
words which you parse, but on the attention which you give the 
subject. You may jparse the same exercises several times over. 

For the gratification of those who prefer it, I here present an- 
other 

DIVISION OF VERBS. 

Verbs are of two kinds, transitive and intransitive. 

A verb is transitive when the action affects an object ; as, 
" Earthquakes rock kingdoms ; thrones and palaces are shaken 
down ; and potentates, princes, and subjects, are buried in one 
common grave." 

The nominative to a passive verb, is the object, but not the agent, of tlie 
action. 

A verb is intransitive when it has no object ; as, " The waters 
came upon me ;" " I am he who tvas, and is, and is to come,^' 

As an exercise on what you have been studying, I will now 
put to you a few questions, all of which you ought to be able to 
answer before you proceed any farther. 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

With what two general divisions of grammar does the second 
lecture begin ? — Of what does Etymology treat ? — Of what doeb 
Syntax treat? — On what is based the true pnnciple of classifica- 
tion ? — How do you ascertain the part of speech to which a word 
belongs ? — What is meant by its manner of meaning ? — Name the 
ten parts of speech. — Which of these are considered the most 
important ?-— By what sign may a noun be distinguished ? — How 
many kinds of nouns are there ? — What belong to nouns ? — ^Vhat 
is gender ? — How many genders have nouns ? — What is per- 
son ? — How many persons have nouns ? — What is numiber ? — 
How many numbers have nouns ? — What is case ? — How many 
cases have nouns ? — Does case consist in the inflections of a 
noun ? — How many kinds of verbs are there ? — By what sign 
may a verb be known ? — What belong to verbs ? — What is syn- 
thesis ?~What is analvsis ? — -What is parsing ? — Repeat the order 



NOUNS AND VERBS. PAKSiT^G. 01 

of parsing the noun. — Repeat the order of parsing the verb. — 
What rule do you apply in parsing a noun in the possessive 
case ? — What rule, in parsing a noun in the nominative case ? — 
What rule applies in parsing a verb ? — What is meant by gov- 
ernment? — Explain rules 3, 4, and 12. — By what rule are the 
nominative and objective cases of nouns known ? — By what sign 
can you distinguish a transitive from an intransitive verb ? — Do 
transitive verbs ever express a moral action ? — Are intransitive and 
neuter verbs ever used as transitive? — Give some examples of 
transitive verbs with personal and verhal objects. — What rule do 
you apply in parsmg a noun in the objective case ? — Explain rule 
20. — In parsing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude con- 
veying ^plurality of idea, what rule do you apply ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Wliether the learner be required to answer the following questions, or not, 
is, of course, left discretionary with the teacher. The author takes the lib- 
erty to suggest the expediency of not, generally, enforcing such a requisition. 
until the pupil goes through the book a second time. 

Name some participial nouns. — What are abstract nouns ? — What is the 
distinction between absti-act nouns and adjectives ? — What are natural 
nouns ? — Artificial nouns ? — What is the distinction between material and 
immaterial nouns ?— Are nouns ever of the masculin-e and feminine gender ? — 
Give examples. — When are nouns, naturally neuter, converted into the mas- 
culine or feminine gender ? — Give examples. — Speak some nouns that are 
always in the singular number. — -^ome that are always plural. — Speak some 
that are in the same form in both numbers. — Name all the various ways of 
forming the plural number of nouns. — Of what number are the uoims neics, 
means, alms, and amends 7 — Name the plurals to the following compound 
nouns, handful, cupful, spoonful, brother-in-lato^ court-martial . 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
What has usually been the object of philosophical investigations of lan- 
guage 1 (page 32.)— -Do the syntactical dependanc^s and connexions of words 
depend on their original import ? — Is the power of association and custom 
efficient in chan^ng the radical meaning of some words 1 — Have words in- 
trinsically a signification of their own ; or is their meaning inferential ; i. e. 
such as custom has assigned to them ? (page 38.) — On v^h?itfact is based the 
true, philosophical principle of classification ? — Define philosophical gram 
mar. — Which is supposed to be the original part of speecli ? — How were the 
others formed from that ? — How many pai'ts of speech may be recognised in 
a scientific development and arrangement of the principles of our language? — 
Name them. — What testimony have we that many things do not act ? (page 
43.) — Repeat some of the arguments in favor of, and against, the principle 
which regards all verbs as active. — In w^iat moods are verbs used in their 
noun-state ? (page 48.) — Give examples. — What is said of the terminations, 
9«i, ethf s, aud en, and of the words to and do 1 

REMARKS ON VERBS AND NOUNS. 
You have already been infonned, that verbs are the most important part 
of speech in our language ; and to convince you of their importance, I now 
tell vou, that yau eannot express a thought, or communicate an idea, without 

9s 



■32 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

making use of a verb, either expressed or implied Verbs express, not on] y 
the state or manner of being, but, likewise, all the different actions and moiw.. 
ments of all creatures and thmgs, whether animate or inanim.ate. As yet I have 
given you only a partial description of this sort of words ; but when you are 
better prepared to comprehend the subject, I will explain all their properties, 
and show you the proper manner of usin^ them- 

A word that is generally a noun, sometimes becomes a verb ; and a verb 
is frequently used as a noun. These changes depend on the sense which the 
word conveys ; or, rather, on the office it perforins in the sentence ; that is, 
the manner in w^hich it is applied to things. For instance ; glory is generally 
a nomi ; as, '^ The glory of God's throne." But if I say, I glory in religion; 
or. He glories in wickedness, the word glo>ry becomes a verb. The love of 
man is inconstant. In this sentence, love is a noun ; in the next, it is a vei'b : 
They love virtue. He walks swiftly; Scavengers sweep the sti'eets; The 
ship sails well. In tliese phrases, the words walks^ sweep, and sails, are 
verbs ; in the follov^nng they are nouns : Those are pleasant ivalks ; He takes 
a broad sweep ; The ship lowered her sails. 

Thus you see, it is impossible for you to become a grammarian 
without exercising your judgment. If you have sufficient reso- 
lution to do this, you will, in a short time, perfectly understand 
the nature and office of the diiferent parts of speech, their vari- 
ous properties and relations, and the rules of syntax that apply 
to them ; and, in a few weeks, be able to speak and v/rite accu- 
rately. But you must not take things for granted, without ex- 
amining their propriety and correctness. No. You are not a 
mere automaton^ or hoy-machine ; but a rational being. You ought, 
therefore, to think methodically, to reason soundly, and to investi- 
gate every principle critically. Don't be afraid to think for 
yourself. You know not the high destiny that awaits you. You 
know not the height to which you may soar in the scale of intel- 
lectual existence. Go on, then, boldly, and v/ith unyielding per- 
severance ; and if you do not gain admittance into the temple of 
fame, strive, at all hazards, to drink of the fountain which gur- 
gles from its base. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 1, to Ruls 12. A noun in the possessive case, should 
always be distinguished by the apostrophe, or mark of elision ; 
as, The nation^ s glory. 

That girls book is cleaner than those boys books. 

Not connect, because the nouns girls and boys are both in the possessiv 
case, and, therefore, require the apostrophe, by which they should be dis- 
tinguished; thxLSf ^^ girVSf boys\^* according to th© preceding Note. [Re- 
peat the note.] 

Thy ancestors virtue is not thine. 

If the writer of this sentence meant one ancestor, he should have inserted 
file apostrophe after r, thus, '* ancestor's .'^^ if more than one, after s, thus 



NOUNS AND VERBS. FALSE SYNTAX. ^ 63 

' ancestors^ virtue ;" but, by neglecting to place the apostrophe, he has lefl 
his meaning ambiguous, and we cannot ascertain it. Thi5, and a thousand 
other mistakes you will often meet with, demonstrate the truth of my de- 
claration, namely, that '' without the knowledge and application of grammar 
ndes, you will often speak and wi'ite in such a manner as not to be vnder- 
stood.'' You may now turn back and re-examine the *' illustration" of Rules 
3, 4, and 12, on page 52, and then correct the following examples about ^2;e 
times over. 

A mothers tenderness and a fathers care, are natures gift's fof 
mans advantage. Wisdoms precept's form the good mans inte- 
rest and happiness. They suffer for conscience's sake. lie is 
reading Cowpers poems. James bought Johnsons Dictionary. 

Rule 4. A verb must agree with its nominative in number 
and person. 

Those boys improves rapidly. The men labors in the field. 
Nothing delight some persons. Thou shuns the light. He dare 
not do it. They reads well. 

I know you can correct these sentences without a rule, for they all have a 
harsh sound, which offends the ear. I wish you, however, to adopt the habit 
of correcting errors by applying rules ; for, by-and-by, you will meet wdth 
errors in composition which you cannot correct, if you are ignorant of the 
application of grammar rules. 

Now let us clearly understand this 4th Rule. Recollect, it applies to the 
'verb, and not to the noun; therefore, in these examples the verb is ungi'am- 
matical. The noun boys, in the first sentence, is of the third person plural, 
and the verb improves is of the third person singular ; therefore. Rule 4th is 
violated, because the verb dues not agree wdth its nominative in number. It 
should be, " boys improve.*^ The verb would then be plural, and agree with 
its nominative accordmg to the Rule. In the fourth sentence, the verb does 
not agree in person with its nominative. Thou is of the second person, and 
shuns is of the iidrd. It should be, '' thou shimnest," &c. You may correct 
the other sentences, and, likewise, the following exercises in 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

A variety of pleasing objects charm the eye. The number of 
inhabitants of the United States exceed nine millions. Nothing 
but vain and foolish pursuits delight some persons. 

In vain our flocks and fields increase our store, 
When our abundance make us wish for more. 

While ever and anon, there falls 
Huge heaps of hoary, moulder'd walls. 



64 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



LECTURE III. 



OF ARTICLES. 

An article is a word prefixed to nouns to limit 
their signification ; as, a man, the woman. 

There are only two articles, a or an, and the. A 
or an is called the indefinite article. The is called 
the definite article. 

The indefinite article limits the noun to one of a 
kind, but to no particular one ; as, a house. 

The definite article generally limits the noun to a 
particular object, or collection of objects; as, the 
house, the men. 

The small claims of the article to a separate rank as a distinct 
part of speech, ought not to be admitted in a scientific classifica- 
tion of words. A and the, this and that, ten, few, and fourth, 
and many other words, are used to restrict, vary, or define the 
signification of the nouns to which they are joined. They might, 
therefore, with propriety, be ranked under the general head of- 
Restrictives, Indexes, or Defining Adjectives, But, as there is a 
marked distinction in their particular meaning and application, 
each class requires a separUe explanation. Hence, no practical 
advantage would be gained, by rejecting their established classifi- 
cation, as articles, numerals, and demonstratives, and by giving 
them 7iew names. The character and application of a and the 
can be learned as soon when they are styled articles, as when 
they aie denominated specifying or defining adjectives. 

The history of this part of speech is very brief. As there are 
but two articles, a or an and the, you will know them wherever 
they occur. 

A noun used without an article, or any other restrictive, is 
taken in its general sense; as, '^ Fruit is abundant;" " Gold is 
heavy;" ''Man is born to trouble." Here we mean, fruit and 
gold in general ; and all men, or mankind. 

W^hen we wish to limit the meaning of the noun to one object, 
but to no particular one, we employ a or an. If 1 say, " Give me 
a pen;" "Bring me an apple;" you are at liberty to fetch any 
pen or any apple you please. A or an, then, is indefinite, be- 
cause it leaves the meaning of the noun to which it is applied, 
as far as regards the person spoken to, vague, or indeterminate ; 



OF ARTirLKS. 65 

that is, not definite. But when reference is made to a particular 
object, we employ the, as, "Give me the pen;" "Bring me the 
app-e, or the apples." When such a requisition is made, you are 
not at liberty to bring any pen or apple you please, but you must 
fetch the particular pen or apple to which you know me to refer. 
The is, therefore, called the definite article. 

''A star appears." Here, the star referred to, may be known 
as a particular star, definite, and distinguished from all others, in 
tlie mind of the speaker ; but to the hearer, it is left, among the 
thousands that bedeck the vault of heaven, undistinguished and 
indefinite. But when the star has oreviously been made the subject 
of discourse, it becomes, in the minds of both speaker and hearer, 
a definite object, and he says, " The star appears ;" that 's, that 
particular star about which we were discoursing. 

" Solomon built a temple." Did he build any temple, undeter- 
mined which ? No ; it was a particular temple, pre-eminently dis- 
tinguished from all others. But how does it become a definite 
object in the mind of the hearer ? Certainly, not by the phrase, " a 
temple," which indicates any temple, leaving it altogether unde- 
termined which ; but supposing the person addressed was totally 
unacquainted with the fact asserted, and it becomes to him, in one 
respect only, a definite and particular temple, by means of the 
associated words, "Solomon built ;" that is, by the use of these 
words in connexion with the others, the hearer gets the idea of a 
temple distinguished as the one erected hy Solomon, If the speaker 
were addressing one whom he supposed to be unacquainted wi^h 
the fact related, he might make the temple referred to a still more 
definite object in the mind of the hearer by a farther explanation 
of it ; thus, " Solomon built a temple on mount Zion ; and that 
was the temple to which the Jews resorted to worship, '^ 

" The lunatic," ^7ie poet, and the lover, 
" Are of imagination all compact." 
" The horse is a noble animal ;" " The dog is a faithful crea- 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

A, AN, THE. 

In a scientific arrans^ement of grammatical principles, a and the belong to 
tliat class of adjectives denominated definitives or restrictives. 

A, on, ane, or one, is the past participle of ananad, to add, to join. It de- 
notes that the thing to which it is prefixed, is added, united, aned, on-d, oned, 
waned.) or made one. 

The and that. According to Home Tooke, the is the imperative, and that, 
the ;;a»t participle, of the Anglo-Saxon verb tkean, to set, take, assimie. The 
and that had. originally, the same meaniiig. The difference in their present 
application, is a modem refinement. Hence, that, as well as the, w^as for- 
merly used, indifferently, before either ?. singular or a plural noun. 

6* 



66 ETYMOLOGY AND SiNTAX. 

ture ;" " The wind blows;" " TJw wolves were howling in the 
woods. '^ In these examples, we do not refer to any particular 
lunatics, poets, lovers, horses, dogs, winds, wolves, and woods, but 
we refer to these particular classes of things, in contradistinction 
to other objects or classes. The phrase, " Neither the one nor the 
other," is an idiom of the language. 

Remarks. — This method of ehicidating the articles, which is popular with 
Blair, Priestley, Lowth, Johnson, Harris, Beattie, Coote, Murray, and many 
other distinguished philologists, is discarded by some of our modern writers. 
But, by proving that this theory is exceptionable, they by no means make it 
appear, that it ought, therefore, to be rejected. 

Exceptionable or not, they have not been able to supply its place w^ith one 
that is more convenient in practice. Neither have they adopted one less ex- 
cep.ionable. The truth is, after all v^^hich can be done to render the defini- 
tions and rules of grammar comprehensive and accurate, they will still be 
found, when critically examined by men of learning and science, more or less 
exceptionable. These exceptions and imperfections are the unavoidable 
consequence of the imperfections of the language. Language, as well as 
every thing else of human invention, will always be imperfect. Consequent- 
ly, a perfect system of grammatical principles, would not suit it. A perfect 
grammiar will not be produced, until some perfect being writes it for a per- 
feci language ; and a perfect language will not be constracted, until some 
super-human agency is employed in its production. All gi'ammatical piiuci- 
ples and systems which are not perfect, are exceptionable. 

NOTFlS. 

1. The article is omitted before nouns implying the different \artues, vices, 
passions, qualities, sciences, arts, metals, herbs, &:c. ; as, " Modesty is becom- 
ing ; Falsehood is odious ; Grammar is useful," &c. 

2. The article is not prefixed to proper nouns ; as, Barron killed Decalnr; 
except by way of eminence, or for the sake of distinguishing a particular 
family, or when some noun is understood ; as, '' He is not a Franklin ; He is 
a Lee, or of the family oi the Lees; We sailed down the (river) Missouri." 

3. An adjective is frequently placed betv^^een the article and the noun wath 
which the article agre<3S ; as, " A good boy ; an ind.ustrious man." Some- 
times the adjective precedes the article ; as, " As great a man as Alexander; 
Such a shame." 

4. In referring to many individuals, when w'e wish to bring each separate- 
ly under consideration, the indefinite article is sometimes placed between 
the adjective many and a singular noun ; as, '' Where many a rosebud rears 
its blushing head ;" " Full many a forcer is born to blush unseen." 

5. The defiaite article the is frequently applied to adverbs in the compai-a- 
tive or superlative degree ; as, '' The more I examine it, the better I hke it; 
I like this the least of any." 

You may proceed and parse the following articles, when you 
shall have committed this 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING 

The Older of parsing an Article, is — an article, 

and why ? — definite or indefinite, and why ?— with 

what noun does it agree ? — -Rule. 



ARTICLES. PARSi.N4i. 07 

" He is the son of a king.'' 

The is an article, a word prefixed to a noun to limit its signifi- 
cation—definite, it limits the noun to a particuj^ar object — it be- 
longs to the noun '' son," according to 

Rule 2. The definite article the belongs to nouns in the singular 
or plural number only, 

A is an article, a word placed before a noun to limit its signi- 
fication — indefinite, it limits the noun to one of a kind, but to no 
particular one — it agrees with "king," agreeably to 

Rule 1. The article a or an agrees with nourcs in the singular 
number. 

Note. By considering the original meaning of this article, the propriety 
of Rule 1, wall appear. A or an, (formerly written ane,) being equivalent to 
one, any one, or some one, cannot be prefixed to nouns in the plural number. 
There is, however, an exception to this rule. A is placed before a plural 
noun w^hen any of the following adjectives come between the article and the 
noun : few, great, many, dozen, huudredy thousand, million ; as, a few 7nen, a 
thousand houses, ($'C. 

Af\er having parsed these articles several times over, please to 
read this third lecture three times. Then turn back, and exam- 
ine the second lecture critically, observing to parse every exam- 
ple according to the directions previously given, which will pre- 
pare you to parse systematically, all the articles, nouns, and verbs 
in these subsequent 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

A bird sings. An eagle flies. Mountains stand. The multi- 
tude pursue pleasure. The reaper reaps the farmer's grain. 
Farmers mow the grass. Farmers' boys spread the hay. The 
clerk sells the merchant's goods. An ostrich outruns an Arab's 
horse. Cecrops founded Athens. Gallileo invented the teles- 
cope. James Macpherson translated Ossian's poems. Sir Fran- 
cis Drake circumnavigated the globe. Doctor Benjamin Frank- 
lin invented the lightning-rod. Washinfjton Irving wrote the 
Sketch-Book. 

I will now offer a few remarks on the misapplication of the 
articles, which, with the exercise of your own discriminating 
powers, will enable you to use them with propriety. But, before 
you proceeii; please to answer the folio Vvdng 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

IIov/ many articles are there ? — In what sense is a noun taken, 
when it has no article to limit it ? — Repeat the order of parsing 
an article. — What rule applies in parsing the definite article ? — 
What rule in parsing the indefinite ? 



G8 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 
Before what nouns is the article omitted ? — Is the article the ever applied 
to adverbs ? — Give examples. — What is the meaning of a or an ? — When is 
a or an placed before a plural noun 1 — From what are a, the, and that derived ? 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note to Rule 1. An is used before a vowel or silent h, and 
a before a consonant or u long, and also before the word one. 

It is not only disagi'eeable to the ear, but, according to this note, improper 
to say, a apple, a humble suppliant, an hero, an university, because the word 
apple begins with a vowel, and k is not sounded in the word humble, for 
which reasons a should be an in the first two examples ; but, as the h is 
sounded in Aero, and thesis long in?/ 7i^^7e?•s^7?^, a ought to be prefixed to these 
words : thus, aii apple, an humble suppliant : a hero, a miiversity. You 
may correct the following 

EXAMPLES. 

A enemy, a inkstand, a hour, an horse, an herald, an heart, 
an heathen, an union, a umbrella, an useful book, many an one. 
This is an hard saying. They met with an heavy loss. He 
would not give an hat for an horse. 

Note 1, to Rule 2. The articles are often properly omitted ; 
when used they should be justly applied, according to their dis- 
tinct character; as, "Gold is corrupting; The sea is green; A^ 
lion is bold." It would be improper to say. The gold is corrupt- 
ing ; Sea is green ; Lion is bold. 

The grass is good for horses, and the wheat for men. Grass 
is good for the horses, and wheat for the men. Grass looks well . 
Wheat is blighted. 

In the first of these sentences, we are not speaking of any particular kind 
of grass or wheat, neither do we wish to limit the meaning to any particular 
crop or field of grass, or quantity of wheat; but we are speaking of grass 
and wheat generally, therefore the article the should bo omitted. In the se- 
cond sentence, we do not refer to any definite kind, quality, or number of 
horses or men; but to horses and men generally; that is, the terms are hero 
used to denote whole species, therefore, the article should be omitted, and the 
sentence should read thus, •' Grass is good for horses, and v^'heat for men." 

In the third and fourth examples, we wish to limit our mecuiing to the 
crops of grass and wheat now on the gi'ound, which, m contradistinction to 
the crops heretofore raised, are considered as ;prt'r/2V?/Z/7r objet^ts; therefore 
we should say, " The grass looks well ; The wheat is blighted." 

Note 2. When a noun is used in its general sense, the article 
should be omitted; as, ^'Poetry is a pleasing art;'' ^'Oranges 
grow in New Orleans. '' 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Corn m the garden, grows well ; but co7*n in the field, does 
not. How does the tobacco sell ? The tobacco is dear. Ilow 
do you like the study of the grammar? The grammar is a 



OF A.DJBGT1VES. 69 

pleasing study. A candid temper is proper for the man. World 
is wide. The man is mortal. And I persecuted this way unto 
the death. The earth, the air, the fire, and the water, are the 
four elements of the old philosophers. 



LECTURE TV. 

OF ADJECTIVES. 



5k An Adjective is a word added to a noun to express 
its quality or kind, or to restrict its meaning ; as, a 
good man, a bad man, a free man, an unfortunate man, 
one man, forty men. 

In the phrases, a good apple, a had apple, a large apple, a small 
* apple, a red apple, a white apple, a green apple, a sweet apple, a 
sour apple, a hitter apple, a round apple, a hard apple, a soft 
apple, a mellow apple, a fair apple, a May apple, an early apple, 
a late apple, a winter apple, a crah apple, a thorn apple, a well- 
tasted apple, an ill-looking apple, a water-cored apple, you per- 
ceive that all those words in ^^a/^c5 are adjectives, because each ex- 
presses some quality or property of the noun apple, or it shows 
what kind of an apple it is of which we are speaking. 

The distinction between a noun and an adjective is very clear. 
A noun is the name of a thing ; but an adjective denotes simply 
the quality or ^property of a thing. This is fine cloth. In this 
example, the difference between the word denoting the thing, and 
that denoting the quality of it, is easily perceived. You certainly 
cannot be at a loss to know, that the word cloth expresses the 
name, and fine, the quality, of the thing ; consequently fine must 
be an adjective. If I say. He is a wise man, a prudent man, a 
wicked man, or an ungrateful man, the words in italics are adjec- 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

ADNOUNS. 

Adnoun or Adjective y comes fr©m the Latin, ad and jicioy to add to. 

Adnouns are a class of words added to nouns to vary their comprehension, 
or to determine their extension. Those which effect the former object, are 
called adjectives, or attributes ; and those "which effect the latter, restrictives. 
It is not, in all cases, easy to determine to which of these classes an adnoun 
should be referred. Words which express simply the qualities of nouns, are 
adjectives ; and such as denote their situation or mimber, are restrictives. 

Adjectives were originally nouns or verbs. 



70 BTia^IOLOSY AND SYNTAX. 

tives, because each expresses a quality of the noun man. And, 
i^ I Gay, He is a tall man, a short man, a white man, a black man, 
or a persecuted man, the words, /aZ/, ^/tor/, ivhite, black, and per- 
secuted, are also adjectives, because they tell what kind of a man 
he is #f whom I am speaking, or they attribute to him some par- 
ticular property. 

Some adjectives restrict or limit the signification of the nouns 
to which they are joined, and are, therefore, sometimes called 
definitives ; as, one era, seven ages, the first man, the whole mass, 
no trouble, those men, that book, all regions. 

Other adjectives define or describe nouns, or do both ; as, fine 
silk, hlue paper, a heavy shower, pure water, green mountains 
bland breezes, gurgling rills, glass window, window glass, beaver 
hats, chip bonnets, blackberry ridge, Monroe garden, Juniata iron, 
Cincinnati steam-mill. 

Some adjectives are secondary, and qualify other adjectives ; 
as, pale red lining, dark blue silk, deep sm green sash, soft iron 
blooms, red hot iron plate. 

You will frequently find the adjective placed after the noun ; ' 
as, "Those men are tall; A lion is bold; The weather is calm; 
The tree is three feet thick J' 

Should you ever be at a loss to distinguish an adjective from 
the other parts of speech, the following sign will enable you to 
tell it. Any word that will make sense with the word thing 
added, or with any other noun following it, is an adjective ; as, 
a high thing, a low thing, a hot thing, a cold thing, an unfinished 
thing, a new fashioned thing : — or, a pleasant prospect, a long-de- 
serted dwelling, an American soldier, a Greek Testament. Are 
these words adjectives, distant, yonder, peaceful, long-sided, double- 
headed ? A distant object or thing, yonder hill, ^c. They are. 
They will make sense with a noun after them. — Adjectives some- 
Some consider the adjective, in its present application, exactly equivalent 
to a noun connected to another noun by means of juxtaposition, of a prepo- 
sition, or of a corresponding flexion. " A golden cup," say they, '* is the same 
as a gold cup, or a cup of gold " But this principle appears to be exception- 
able. '' A cup of gold,''^ may mean either a cnp-full of gold or a cup made 
of gold. '* An oaken cask," signifies an oak cask, or a cask of oak ; i. e. a 
cask made of oak ; but a beer cask, and a cask of beer, are two different 
things. A virtnons son ; a son of virtue. 

The distinguishing characteristic of the adjective, appears to consist in its 
both namirig a quality, and attributing that quality to some object. 

The terminations en, cd, and ig, (our modem y,) signifying give, add,joi7i, 
denote that the names of qualities to w^hich they are postfixed, are to be at- 
tnbuted to other nouns possessing such qualities ; wood-ew, wood-3^. See 
page 37. 

Left is the past participle of the verb leave. Home Tooke defines right 



ADJECTIVES. T] 

times become adverbs. This matter will be explained in Lec- 
ture VI. In parsing, you may generally knew an adjective by 
its qualifying a noun or pronoun. 

Most words ending in ing are present participles. These are 
frequently used as adjectives ; therefore, most participles will 
make sense with the addition of the word thing, or any other 
noun, after them ; as, a pleasing thing, a moving spectacle, moul- 
dering ruins. 

In the Latin language, and many others, adjectives, like nouns, 
have gender, number, and case ; but in the English language, 
they have neither gender, person, number, nor case. These 
properties belong to creatures and things, and not to their quali- 
ties ; therefore gender, person, number, and case, are the pro- 
perties of nouns, and not of adjectives, 

i Adjectives are varied only to express the degrees 
of comparison. They have three degrees of compari- 
son, the Positive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The positive degree expresses the quality of an ob- 
ject without any increase or diminution; as, good, 
wise, great. 

The comparative degree increases or lessens the 
positive in signification; as, better, wiser, greater, 
less vnse. 

The superlative degree increases or lessens the posi- 
tive to the highest or lowest degree ; as, best, wisest.^ 
greatest, least wise. 

to be that which is ordered or directed. The right hand is that which your 
parents and custom direct you to use in preference to the other. And when 
vuu employ that in preference, the other is the leaved, leaved, or left hand , 
1 e. the one leaved or left. ^' The one shall be taken, and tae other (leaved) left.''' 

Oicn. Fonnerly a man's own was what he worked for j own being a past 
participle of a verb signifying to ivork. 

Restricfives. Some restiictives, in modem times, are applied only to sin- 
gular nouns; such as a or an, another, one, this, that, each, every, either 
Others, only to plural nouns ; as, these, those, two, three^ few, several, all. 
But most restrictives, like adjectives, are applied to both singular and plural 
nouns : first, second, last, the, former, latter, any, such, same, some, which, what. 

Numerals. All numeration was, doubtless, originally performed by the 
fingers ; for the number of the fingers is still the utmost extent of its signifi- 
cation Ten is the past participle of tynan, to close, to shut in. The hands 
tyned, tened, closed, or shut in, signified ten; for there nameratiun closed. 
To denote a number gi'eater than ten. we must begin asain, i-en and one^ ten 
uud th30» &c. 



72 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

More and mosi form the comparative and superlative degrees by increasing 
the positive ; and less and leasl, by diminishing it. 

Comparison by increasing the positive. 



Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


great, 


greater. 


greatest. 


wise, 


wiser, 


wisest. 


holy, 


more holy, 


most holy. 


frugal, 


more frugal. 


most frugal 




Comparison by diminishing 


the positive. 


Pos. 


Comp. 


Sup. 


wise, 


less wise, 


least wise. 


holy, 


less holy, 


least holy. 


frugal, 


less frugal. 


least frugal. 



NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 

Words used in counting, are called numeral adjec- 
tives of the cardinal kind ; as, one, two, three, four, 
twenty, fifty, &c. 

Words used in numbering, are called numeral ad- 
jectives of the ordinal kind; as, first, second, third, 
fourth, twentieth, fiftieth, &c. 

Note. The words many, few, and several, as they alv^ays refer to an iu 
definite number, may be properly called numeral adjectives of the indefinite 
kind. 

NOTES. 

I. The simple word, or Positive, becomes the Comparative by adding r, 
or er i and the Positive becomes the Superlative, by adding st, or est, to the 
end of it ; as, Pos. wise. Com. wiser, Sup. Widest; rich, richer, richest; bold, 
bolder, boldest. The adverbs, more and most, less and least, when placed 
before the adjective, have the same effect ; as, Pos. wise, Com. more wise, 
Sup. most wise ; Pos. wise. Com. less wise. Sup. least wise. 

Twain, twa-in, twa-ain, twa-ane, is a compound of two (twa, twae, twee^ 
twi, two or dwo or duo) and one (ane, ai?i, an.) It signifies two units joined^ 
united, aned, or oned. Twenty (twa-ane-ten) signifies two tens aned, oned, or 
united. Things sepa^-aied into parcels of twenty each, are called scores. 
Score is the past participle of shear, to separate. 

The Ordinals are formed like abstract nouns in eth. Fifth, sixth, or tenth, 
is the number which ^v-e^^, six-ethy ten-eth, or mak-e^^ up the number ^ve, 
eix, or ten. 

Philosophical writers who limit our acceptation of words to that in which 
they were originally employed, and suppose that all the complicated, yet 
often definable, associations which the gradual progress of language and in- 
tellect has connected witb words, are to be reduced to the staaidard of our 



ADJECTIVES. PARSING. 73 

2. Monosyllables are generally compared by adding er and est; dtssyUahlea 
trisyllables, &c. by more and most; as, mild, milder, mildest; frugal, more 
fnigal, most frugal ; virtuous, more virtuous, most virtuous. Dissyllables 
ending in y ; as, happy, lovely ; and in le after a mute ; as, able, ample ; ana 
dissyllables accented on the last syllable ; as, discreet, polite ; easily admit 
K}i er and est; as, happi^^r, happiest; politer, politest. Words of more than 
two syllables very seldom admit of these terminations. 

3. When the positive ends in d, or t, preceded by a single vowel, the con- 
sonant is doubled in forming the comparative and superlative degrees ; as, 
red, redder J reddest; hot, hotter, hottest. 

4. In some words the superlative is formed by adding most to the end cf 
them ; as, nethermost, uttermost or utmost, undermost, uppermost, foremost. 

5. In English, as in most languages, there are some words of very common 
use, (in which the caprice of custom is apt to get the better of analogy,) that 
arc irregular in forming the degrees of comparison ; as, " Good, better, best -, 
bad, w^orse, worst; little, less, least; much or many, more, most; near, 
nearer, nearest or next ; late, later, latest or last ; old, older or elder, oldest 
or eldest ;" and a few others. 

6. The following adjectives, and many others, are always in the super- 
lative degree, because, by expressing a quality in the highest degree, they 
carry in themselves a superlative signification : chief, extreme, perfect, right, 
wrong, honest, just, true, correct, sincere, vast, immense, ceaseless, infinite, end- 
less, unparalleled, universal, supreme, unlimited, omnipotent, all-wise, eternal. 

7 . Compound adjectives, and adjectives denoting qualities arising from 
the figure of bodies, do not admit of comparison ; such as, well-forvied, frost 
bitten, rou?id, square, oblong, circular, q^cadrangular, conical, 4'C. 

8. The termination ish added to adjectives, expresses a slight degree of 
quality below the comparative ; as, black, blackish ; salt, saltish. Very, pre- 
fixed to the comparative, expresses a degree of quality, but not always a su- 
perlative degree. 

Read this Lecture carefully, particularly the Notes ; after 
which you may parse the following adjectives and neuter verb, 
and, likewise, the examples that follow. If you cannot repeat 
all the defiinitions and rules, spread the Compendium when you 
parse. But before you proceed, please to commit the 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing an Adjective, is — an adjec- 
tive, and why ?— compare it — degree of comparison, 
and why ? — -to what noun does it belong ? — Rule. 

forefathers, appear not to, have sufficiently attended to the changes which 
this principle of association actually produces. As language is transmitted 
^roKi generation to generation, many v^rords become the representatives of 
ideas with which they were not originally associated ; and thus they undergo 
a change, not only in the mode of their application, but also in their meaning. 
Words being the signs of things, their meaning must necessarily change as 
much, at least, as things themselves change ; but this variation in their im- 
port more frequently depends on accidental circumstances. Among the 
deas connected with a word that which was once of primary, becomes only 
of secondary importance ; and sometimes, by degrees it loses altogether ita 

7 



74 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

That great nation was once powerful; but now it is feeUe. ^ 

Great is an adjective, a word added to a noun to express its 
quality — pos. great, com. greater, sup. greatest — it is in the pos- 
itive degree, it expresses the quality of an object without any 
increase or diminution, and belongs to the noun " nation," accord- 
ing to 

Rule 18. Adjectives lelong to, and qualify, nouns expressed or 
understood. 

Was is a verb, a word that signifies to be — neuter, it expresses 
neither action nor passion, but being or a state of being— third 
person singular, because its nominative " nation" is a noun of 
multitude conveying unity of idea — it agrees with " nation," 
agreeably to 

Rule 10. A noun of multitude conveying unity of idea, may 
have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the singular. 

Powerful is an adjective belonging to "nation," according to 
Rule 18. Feeble belongs to " it," according to Note 1, under Rule 
18. Is is a neuter verb agreeing with " it," agreeably to Rule 4. 
"Bonaparte entered Russia with 400,000 men." 

Four-hundred-thousand is a numeral adjective of the cardinal 
kind, it is a word used in counting, and belongs to the noun " men," 
according to Note 2, under Rule 18. Numeral adjectives belong 
to nouns, which nouns must agree in number with their adjectives. 

If, in parsing the following examples, you find any words about 
which you are at a loss, you will please to turn back, and parse 
all the foregoing examples again. This course will enable you 
to proceed without any difficulty. 

More is an adverb. Of and to are prepositions, governing the 
nouns that follow them in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
A benevolent man helps indigent beggars. Studious scholars 
learn many long lessons. Wealthy merchants own large ships. 
The heavy ships bear large burdens ; the lighter ships carry less 
burdens. Just poets use figurative language. Ungrammatical 
expressions offend a true critic's ear. Weak critics magnify tri- 
fling errors. No composition is perfect. The rabble was tumul- 

connexion with the word, giving place to others with which, from some acci 
dental causes, it has been associated. 

Two or three instances will illustrate the truth of these remarks. In an 
ancient English version of the New Testamen':, we find the following lan- 
guage : ** 1, Paul, a rascal of Jesus Chi-ist, untc you Gentiles," &c. But 
who, in the present acceptation of the word, wouid dare to call " the great 
apostle of the Gentiles" a rascal? Rascal formerly meant a servant: one 
devoted to the interest cf another; but now it is nearly synonymous with 



• ^ aXECTIVES. PARSING. 75 

tiioiis. The late-washed grass looks green. Shady trees form a 
deliglitful arbor. The setting sun makes a beautiful appear- 
ance ; the variegated rainbow appears more beautiful. Epaml 
nondas was the greatest of the Theban generals ; Pelopidas wa' 
next to Epaminondas. 

The first fleet contained three hundred men ; the second con- 
tained four thousand. The earth contains one thousand million 
inhabitants. Many a cheering ray brightens the good man's 
pathway. 

Note. Like, Worth. The adjective like is a conti-action of the participle 
likened, and generally has the preposition unto understood after it. *' She is 
like \_2into'] her brother;" " They are unlike [io] him." " The kingdom of 
heaven is like [^likened or made like"] unto a householder." 

The nomi worth has altogether dropped its associated v^ords. *' The cloth 
is worth ten dollars a yard ;" that is, The cloth is of the worth of ten dollars 
by the yard, or for a, one, or every yard. 

Some eminent philologists do not admit the propriety of supplying an ellip- 
^ sis after like, worth, ere, but, except, and than, but consider them prepositions. 
See Anomalies, in the latter part of this work. 

REMARKS ON ADJECTIVES AND NOUNS. 

A critical analysis requires that the adjective when used without its noun, 
should be parsed as an adjective belonging to its noun understood ; as, 
*' The virtuous [^persons'] and the sincere [^persons'] are always respected ;" 
*'* Providence revs^ards the good [people,'] and punishes the bad [people.y^ 
" The evil [deed or deeds'] that men do, liv^es after them; 
" The good [deed or deeds] is oft interred with their bones." 

But sometimes the adjective, by its manner of meaning, becomes a noun, 
and has another adjective joined to it ; as, '* the chief good;^^ ** The vast im- 
mense [immensity] of space." 

Various nouns placed before other nouns, assume the character of adjec 
tives, according to their inanner of meaning ; as, " Sea fish, iron mortar, wine 
vessel, gold watch, corn field, meadow ground, mountain height." 

The principle which recognises custom as the standard of grammatical ac- 
curacy, might rest for its support on the usage of only six words, and defy 
all the subtleties of innovating skeptics to gainsay it. If the genius and 
analogy of our languagt' were the standard, it would be coiTect to obser\^e 
this analogy, and say, " Good, gooder, goodes^ ; bad, bad<ier, h-Oi^dest ; little, 
little?', littlest ; much, mucher, muches^." "■ By this mean;'''' " What are the 
news.''"' But such a criterion betrays only the weakness of those who at- 
tempt to establish it. Regardless of the dogmas and edicts of the philo- 
sophical umpire, the good sense of the people will cause them, in this in* 
stance, as well as in a thousand others, to yield to custom,, and say, ^* Good, 

villain. Villain once had none of the odium which is now^ associated with 
the term ; but it signified one who, under the feudal system, rented or held 
lands of another. Thus, Heniy the VIII. says to a vassal or tenant, " As 
you are an accomplished villain, I order that you receive £700 out of the 
public treasury." The word villain, then, has given up its original idea, and 
become the representative of a new one, the word tenant having supplanted 
it. To prove that the meaning of words cJianges, a thousand examples 
r-ould by f^dduced ; but with the intelligent reader, proof is unnecessary. 



76 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

hettery best; bad, worse, toorst; little, Zes*, least; much, wore, most;'*' "By 
this means ;" " What is the neics ?" 

With regard to the using of adjectives and other qualifying words, care 
must be taken, or your language will frequently amount to absurdity or non- 
sense. Let the following general remark, which is better than a dozen rules, 
put you on your guard. Whenever you utter a sentence, or put your pen on 
pa|)er to write, weigh well in your mind the meaning of the words which you 
are about to employ. See that they convey precisely the ideas which you 
wish to express by them, and thus you will avoid innumerable errors. In 
speaking of a man, we may say, with propriety, he is very wicked, or ex- 
ceedingly lavish, because the terms wicked and lavish are adjectives that ad- 
mit of comparison ; but, if we take the words in their literal acceptation, 
there is a solecism in calling a man very honest, or exceedingly just, for the 
words honest and just, literally admit of no comparison. In point of fact, a 
man is honest or dishonest, just cr unjust: there can be no medium or excess 
in this respect. Very correct, very incorrect, very right, very wrong, are 
common expressions; but they are not /i^eraZZy proper. Wiiat is xiiSl cor- 
rect, must be incorrect ; and that which is not incorrect, must be correct , 
what is not right, must be icrong ; and that which is not wrong, must be 
right. To avoid that circumlocution wliich m.ust otherwise take place, our 
best speakers and v^riters, however, frequently compare adjectives wliich do 
not literally admit of comparison : '* The most established practice ;" " The 
m,ost uncertain method ;" " Irving, as a writer, is far more accurate than Addi- 
son ;" " The metaphysical investigations of our philosophical grammars, are 
still more incomprehensible to the learner." Comparisons like these, should 
generally be avoided ; but sometimes they are so convenient in practice, as 
to render them admissible. Such expressions can be reconciled with the 
principles of grammar, only by considering them as figurative. 

Comparative members of sentences, should be set in direct opposition to 
each other ; as, " Pope was rich, but Goldsmith ^vas poor.'''' The following 
sentences are maccurate : '"'■ Solomon was wiser than Cicero was eloquent.''^ 
" The principles of the reformation were deeper in the prince's mind than to 
be easily eradicated.^'' This latter sentence contains no comparison at all; 
neitner does it literally convey any meaning. Again, if the Psalmist had 
said, " I am the wisest of my teachers," he would have spoken absurdly, 
because the phrase would imply, that he was one of his teachers. But in 
saying, " I am wiser than my teachers," he does not consider himself one of 
them, but places himself in contradistinction to them. 

Before you proceed any farther, you may answer the following 
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

What is the distinction between a noun and an adjective ? — 
By what sign may an adjective be known ? — Are participles ever 
used as adjectives ? — Does gender, person, number, or case, be- 
long to adjectives ? — How are they varied ? — Name the three 
degrees of comparison. — What effect have less and least in com- 
paring adjectives ? — Repeat the order of parsing an adjective. — 
What rule applies in parsing an adjective ? — What rule m pars 
ing a verb agreeing with a noun of multitude conveying unity of 
idea ? — What Note should be applied in parsing an adjective 
which belongs to a pronoun ? — What Note m parsing numeral 
adjectives? 



ADJECTIVES. FALSE SYNTAX. f7 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Repeat all the various ways of fomiing the degi'ees of comparison, men- 
tioned in the first five Notes. — Compare these adjectives; ripe,fimgal, mis- 
chievous, happy, able, good, little, much or many, near, late, old. — Name 
some adjectives that are always m tlie superlative, and never compared.— 
Are compound adjectives compared ? — What is said of the termination isk^ 
and of the adverb T^cr?/?— When does an adjective become a noun ? — What 
character does a noun assume when placed before another nomi ? —How can 
you prove that ciistom is the standard of grammatical accuracy ? 
QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES 

How are adnouns divided ? — What constitutes the true character of an 
adjective ? — What are the signification and denotement of the terminations, 
en, ed, and ig? — What do left and own signify? — Name the three ways in 
which restrictives are applied. — How was numeration originally performed ? 
— What is said of twain, twenty, score, and the ordinal numbers ? — What is 
said of the changes produced in the meaning of words, by the pmiciple of 
association ? 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 9, under Rule 18. Double Comparatives and Superla- 
lives should be avoided ; such as, ivorser, lesser, onore deeper, 
more wickeder, &:c. : chief est, supremest, perfectest, Tightest; or 
more perfect, most perfect, most supreme, &;c. 

Virtue confers the most supreme dignite on man, and it should 
be his chiefest desire. 

Me made the greater light to rule the day, and the lesser light 
to rule the night. 

The phrases ''most supreme," and ''chiefest," in the first sentence, are 
incorrect, because supreme and chief are in the superlarive degree without 
having the superlative fonn superadded, which addition makes tiiem double 
superlatives. They should be written, " confers supreme dignity," and " his 
cliief desire." 

We can say, one thing is less than another, or smaller than another, because 
the adjectives less and smaller are in the compamtive degi^ee ; but the phrase 
^'lesser light," in the second sentence, is maccurate. Lesser is a double 
comparative, which, according to the preceding Note, should be avoided. 
Lesser is as incorrect as badder, gooder, worser. " The smaller light,^^ woidd 
be less exceptionable. You can correct the following without my assistance. 
Correct them, four times over. 

The pleasures of the understanding are more preferable than 
those of imagination or sense. 

The tongue is like a race-horse, which runs the faster the les- 
ser weio^ht it carries. • 

The nightingale's voice is the most sweetest in the grove. 

The Most Highest hath created us for his glory. 

He w^as admitted to the chiefest offices. 

The first witness gave a strong proof of the fact ; the next a 
more stronger still ; but the last v/itness,the most stronger of all. 

He gave the fullest and the most sincere proof of the truer 
friendship. 

7* 



78 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

LECTURE V. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

A Participle is a word derived from a verb, and 
partakes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjec- 
tive. 

Verbs have three participles^ the present or imper- 
fect, the perfect, and the compound. 

The present or imperfect participle denotes action 
or being continued, but not perfected. It always 
ends in ing ; as, ruling, being : " I am meriting a let- 
ter.'' 

The perfect participle denotes action or being per- 
fected or finished. When derived from a regular 
verb, it ends in ed, and corresponds with the imper- 
fect tense ; as, ruled, smiled : " The letter is writtenJ^ 

The compound participle implies action or being 
completed before the time referred to. It is formed 
by placing having before the perfect participle ; as, 
having ruled, having been ruled : " Having written the 
letter, he mailed it.'' 

The term Pariiciple comes from the Latin word participioy 
which signifies to partake ; and this name is given to this part of 
speech, because it partakes of the nature of the verb and of the 
adjective. 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

Participles are fonned by adding to the verb the termination ing, ed, or en. 
hig si^ifies the same as the noun being. When postiixed to the noun-state 
of the verb, the compomid word thus formed, expresses a continued state of 
the verbal denotement. It implies that v^hat is meant by the verb, is beiiig 
continued. En is an alteration of an, the Saxon verbalizing adjunct ; ed is 
a contraction of dede ; and the terminations d and t, are a contraction of ed 
Participles ending in ed or en, usually denote the dodo, dede, doed, did, done, 
ovfitiished state of what is meant by the verb. The book is printed. It is 
a print-ed or print-done book, or such a one as the done act of printing has 
made it. The book is written ; i. e. it has received the done or Jinish-ed act 
of writ-ing it. 

Participles bear the same relation to verbs, that adnouns do to nonns. 
They might, therefore, be styled verbal adjectives. But that theory which 
ranks thenr with adnouns, appears to rest on a sandy foundation In clas&i 



PARTICIPLES. 79 

By many writers, the participle is classed with the verb, and 
treated as a part of it ; but, as it has no nominative, partakes of 
the nature of an adjective, requires many syntactical rules which 
apply not to the verb, and, in some other respects, has properties 
peculiar to itself, it is believed that its character is sufficiently 
distinct from the verb, to entitle it to the rank of a separate pan 
of speech. It is, in fact, the connecting link between, not only 
the adjective and the verb, but also the noun and the verb. 

All participles are ccmipound in their meaning and office. Like 
verbs, they expi-ess action and being, and denote time ; and, like 
adjectives, they describe the nouns of which they denote the 
action or being. In the sentences. The boatman is crossing the 
river ; I see a man laboring in the field ; Charles is standing ; 
you perceive that the participles crossing and laboring express the 
actions of the boatman and the man, and standing the state of 
being of Charles. In these respects, then, they partake of the 
nature of verbs. You also notice, that they describe the several 
nouns associated with them, like describing adjectives ; and that, 
in this respect, they participate the properties of adjectives. And, 
furthermore, you observe they denote actions which are still going 
an ; that is, incomplete or unfinished actions ; for which reason 
v^^e call them imperfect participles. 

Perhaps I can illustrate their character more clearly. When 
the imperfect or present and perfect participles are placed before 
nouns, they become defining or describing adjectives, and are 
denominated participial adjectives ; as, A loving companion ; The 
rippling stream ; Roaring winds ; A toilted leaf; An accomplished 
scholar. Here the words loving, rippling, roaring, wilted, and 
accomplished, describe or define the nouns with which they are 
associated. And where the participles are placed after their 
nouns, they have, also, this descriptive quality. If I say, I see 

fying words, we ought to be guided more by their manner of meaning, and 
their inferential meaning, than by their primitive, essential signification. 

"■ I have a broken plate ;" i. e. I have a plate — broken ; " I have broken a 
plate." If there is no difference in the essential meaning of the word broken, 
m these two constructions, it cannot be denied, that there is a wide differ- 
ence in the meaning inferred by custom ; which difference depends on the 
TTianner in which the term is applied. The foiiner constiTiction denotes, that 
[ possess a plate which was broken, (whether with or without my agency, is 
not intimated,) perhaps, one hundred or one thousand years ago ; whereas, 
the meaning of the latter is, that I performed the act of reducing the plate 
from a whole to a broken state ; and it is not intimated whether I possess it, 
or some one else. It appears reasonable, that, in a practical grammar, at 
least, any word which occurs ia constructions differing so vsndely, may pro- 
perly be classed with different parts of speech. This illustration likewise 
establishes the propriety of retaining what we call the perfict tense of the verb 



80 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the moon rising ; The horse is running a race ; The dog is I eaten ; 
I describe the several objects, as a rising moon, a running horse, 
and a leaten dog, as well as when I place these participles before 
the nouns. The same word is a participle or a participial adjec- 
tive, according to its manner of meaning. The preceding illus- 
tration, however, shows that this distinction is founded on a very 
slight shade of difference in the meaning of the two. The fol- 
lowing examples will enable you to distinguish the one fiom the 
other. ^ 

Participles, Participial adjectives. 

See the sun setting. See the setting sun. 

See the moon rising. See the rising moon. 

The wind is roaring. Hear the roaring wind. 

The twig is broken. The broken twig fell. 

The vessel anchored in the The anchored vessel spreads 

ba3/, lost her mast. her sail. 

The present or imperfect participle is knov/n by its ending in 
mg ; as, floatf??g, riding, hearf??^, seei7ig. These are derived from 
the verbs, float, ride, hear, and see. But some words ending in 
ing are not participles ; such as evenirig, morning, hireling, sap- 
ling, uninteresting, tmbelieving, uncontrolliiig. When you parse 
a word ending in ing, you should always consider whether it 
comes from a verb or not. There is such a verb as interest, hence 
you know that the word interesting is a participle ; but there is no 
such verb as wninterest, consequently, uninteresting can not be a 
participle : but it is an adjective ; as, an uninteresting story. 
You will be able very easily to distinguish the participle from 
the other parts of speech, when you shall have acquired a more 
extensive knowledge of the verb. 

Speak the participles from each of these verbs, learn, wallc, 
shun, smile, sail, conquer, manage, reduce, relate, discover, over, 
rate, disengage. Thus, Pres. learning, Perf. learned, Comp. 
having learned, Pres. walking, Perf. walked, Compound, having 
walked, and so on. 

You may now commit the order of parsing a participle, and 
then proceed with me. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Participle, is — a partici- 
ple, and why ? — from what verb is it derived ?— speali 
the three — present, perfect, or compound, and why 1 
— ^to what does it refer or belong ? — Rule. 



PARTICIPLES. -81 

"I saw a vessel sailing,^'* 

Sailing is a participle, a word derived from a verb, and par- 
takes of the nature of a verb, and also of an adjective — it comes 
from the verb to sail — pres. sailing, perf. sailed, comp. having 
sailed — it is a present or imperfect participle, because it denotes 
the continuance of an unfinished action — and refers to the noun 
" vessel " for its subject, according to 

Rule 27. The present participle refers to some noun or pronoun 
denoting the subject or actor, 

" Not a breath disturbs the sleeping billow .'' 

Sleeping is a participial adjective, a word added to a noun to 
express its quality — it cannot, with propriety, be compared — it 
belongs to the noun '^ billow," agreeably to 

Rule 18. Adjectives belong to ^ and qualify, nouns expressed or 
understood. 

You will please to parse these tv/o words several times over, 
and, by a little reflection, you will perfectly understand the 27th 
Rule. Recollect, the participle never varies its termination to 
agree with a noun or pronoun, for, as it has no nominative, it has 
no agreement ; but it simply refers to an actor. Examf le-^ : I 
see a vessel sailing ; or, I see three vessels sailing. You p^.^rct ive 
that the participle sailing refers to a singular u-nm in the hrst 
example, and to a plural noun in the second ; and yet the parti- 
ciple is in the same form in both examples. 'Vhe noun vu^^l is 
in the objective case, and governed by the transitive verb see. 
But when a verb follows a noun, the ending of the ^-^^b gene- 
rally varies in order to agree with the noun v/hich is itb i iLina- 
tive ; as, the vessel sails ; the vessels sail. 

In this place it may not be improper to notice another Rule 
that relates to the participle. In the sentence, " The man is heat- 
ing his horse,'^ the noun horse is in the objective case, because it 
is the object of the action expressed by the active-transitive par- 
ticiple " beating,'^ and it is governed by the participle beating, 
according to 

Rule 26. Participles have the same government as the verls 
have from which they are derived. 

The principle upon which this rule is founded, is quite appa- 
rent. As a participle derived from a transitive verb, expresses the 
same kind of action as its verb, it necessarily follows, ihat the 
participle must govern the same case as the verb from vi hich it 
is derived. 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, you may 
proceed and parse the following exercises, containing five parts 
of speech. If, in analyzing these examples, you find any words 



82 . ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

which you cannot parse correctly and systematically by referring 
to your Compend for definitions and rules, you will please to turn 
back and read over again the whole five lectures. You must ex- 
ercise a little patience ; and, for your encouragement, permit me 
to remind you, that when you shall have acquired a thorough 
knowledge of these five parts of speech, only five more will 
remain for you to learn. Be ambitious to excel. Be thorough 
in your investigations. Give your reasoning powers free scope. 
By studying these lectures with attention, you will acquire more 
grammatical knowledge in three months, than is commonly 
obtained in tioo years. 

In the following examples, the words purling, crusted, slmnber- 
ingy and twinkling, are participial adjectives. There and its you 
may omit. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Orlando left the herd grazing. The hunters heard the young 
dog barking. The old fox heard the sportsman's horn sounding. 
Beep rivers float long rafts. Purling streams moisten the earth's 
surface. The sun approaching, melts the crusted sno^v. The 
slumbering seas calmed the grave old hermit's mind. Pale 
Cynthia declining, clips the horizon. Man beholds the twinkling 
stars adorning night's blue arch. The stranger saw the desert 
thistle bending there its lowly head. 

REMARKS ON PARTICIPLES. 

Participles frequently become nouns ; a^, " A good understanding ; Excel- 
lent lorih-ig ; He made a good beginning, but a bad ending^ 

Consti actions Hke the following, have long been sanctioned by the best 
authorities : " The goods are selling ;" " The house is building ;" " The work 
is now 'puh'.ishing.''' A modern innovation, howerer, is likely to supersede 
this mode or* expression : thus, " The goods are being sold;^^ " The house is 
being built f^' " The work is now being 'published.''^ 

You niay now ansv/er these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 
How many kinds of participles are there ? — What is the end- 
ing of a prei3ent participle ? — What does a perfect participle 
denote ?—- W ^th what does the perfect participle of a regular verb 
correspond > — What is a compound participle ? — From what word 
is 1 he term participle derived ? — Why is this part of speech thus 
named ? — Wherein does this part of speech partake of the nature 
of a verb? — Do all participles participate the properties of ad- 
jectives ? — In what respect ? — When are participles called par- 
ticipial adjectives ? — Give examples. — How may a present parti- 
ciple be known ? — Repeat the order of parsing a participle.— 
What rule applies in parsing a present participle ? — What Rule 
in parsing a participial adjective ? — Do participles vary in then 



OF ADVERBS. §3 

terminations in order to agree with their subject or aotor ? — What 
Rule applies in parsing a noun in the objective case, governed 
by a participle? — Do participles ever become nouns? — Give 
examples. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How are participles formed ? — What does the imperfect part, expreai ?— 
What do perfect participles denote ? 



LECTURE VI. 

OF ADVERBS. 



An Adverb is a word used to modify the sense of 
a verb, a participle, an adjective, or another adverb. 

Recollect, an adverb never qualifies a noun. It qualifies any 
of the four parts of speech abovenamed, and none others. 

To modify or qualify, you know, means to produce some change. 
The adverb modifies. If I say, Wirt's style excels Irving's, the 
proposition is affirmative, and the verb excels expresses the affir- 
mation. But when I say, Wirt's style excels not Irving's, the 
assertion is changed to a negative. What is it that thus modifies 
or changes the meaning of the verb excels ? You perceive that 
it is the little word not. This word has power to reverse the 
meaning of the sentence. Not, then, is a modifier, qualifier, or 
negative adverb. 

When an adverb is used to modify the sense of a verb or par- 
ticiple, it generally expresses the manner, time, or place, in which 
the action is performed, or some accidental circumstance respect- 
ing it. In the phrases, The man rides gracefully, awkwardly, 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
As the happiness and increasing prosperity of a people essentially depend 
on their advancement in science and the arts, and as language, in all its sub 
lime purposes and legitimate bearings, is strictly identified with these, it 
may naturallv be supposed, that that nation which continues, through suc- 
cessive generations, steadily to progress in the former, will not be neglectful 
of the cultivation and refinement of the latter. The truth of this remark ia 
illustrated by those who have, for many ages, employed the English lan- 
guage as their medium for the transmission of thought. Among its refine- 
ments may be ranked those procedures by which verbs and nouns have been 
8o modified and contracted as to form what we call adverbs, distributives, 
oonjimctions, and prepositions : for T presume it will be readilv conceded, 



84 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

badly, swiftly, slowly, &c. ; or, I saw the man riding sioiftly, slowly, 
leisurely, very fast, &c., you perceive that the v/ords gracefully, 
aiokwardly, very fast, ^c, are adverbs, qualifying the verb rides, ot 
the participle riding ^ because they express the manner in whf.ch 
the action denoted by the verb and participle, is done. 

In the phrases, The man rides daily, weekly, seldom, frequerUly, 
often, sometimes, never ; or, The man rode yesterday, heretofore, 
long since, long ago, recently, lately, just now ; or, The man v/ill 
►-ide soon, presently, directly, immediately, hy and by, to-day, here- 
after, you perceive that ail these words in italics, are adverbs, 
qualifying the meaning of the verb rides, because they express 
the time of the action denoted by the verb. 

Again, if I say. The man lives here, near hy, yonder, remote, 
far off, somewhere, nowhere, everywhere, &c., the words in ital- 
ics are adverbs of place, because they tell where he lives. 

Adverbs likewise qualify adjectives, and sometimes other ad- 
verbs ; as, more wise, most wise ; or more loisely, most wisely. 
When an adverb is joined to an adjective or adverb, it generally 
expresses the degree of comparison ; for adverbs, like adjectives, 
have degrees of comparison. Thus, in the phrase, A skilful artist, 
you know the adjective skilful is in the positive degree ; but, by 
placing the adverb more before the adjective, we increase the 
degree of quality denoted by the adjective to the comparative ; 
as, A more skilful artist : and most renders it superlative ; as, A 
most skilful artist. And if we place more and most before other 
adverbs, the effect is the same • as, skilfully, more skilfully, most 
skilfully. 

COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 
Positive. Comparative. Superlative^ 

soon, sooner, soonest, 

often, oflener, oftenest. 

much, more, most, 

well, better, best, 

^ar, ^ farther, farthest, 

wisely, more wisely, most wisely, 

j/istly, more justly, most justly, 

justly, less justly, least justly. 

You will generally kn ow an adverb at sight ; but sometimes 

that conciseness, as v/ell as copiousness and perspicuity in language, is ihe 
offspring of refinement. That an immense amomit of time and breath is 
saved by the use of adverbs, the following development will clearly demon- 
strate. He who is successful in contracting one mode of expression that i? 
aaUy used by thirty millions, doubtless does much for their benefit. 

!Vio.st adverbs expres?^ in one word wh^t wo^iKl oihorwise remiire two oi 



OF ADVERBS. 85 

you will find it more difficult to be distinguished, than any other 
pari of speech in the English language. I will, therefore, give 
you some sff^ns which will assist you a little. 

Most words ending in Ii/ are adverbs ; such as, politely, grace- 
ful Jy, judicidisly. Any word or short phrase that will answer 
to any one of the questions, hoio ? lioio much ? when ? or where / 
is an adverb ; as, The river flows rapidly ; He walks very fast ; 
He has gone far away; but he will sooji return; She sings 
sweetly ; They learn 7i07ie at all. How, or in what manner does 
the river flow ? Rapidly. How^ does he walk ? Very fast. 
Where has he gone ? Far aivay. When will he return ? Soon, 
How does she sing ? Siveetly. How much do they learn ? None 
at alL From this illustration, you perceive, that, if you could 
not tell these adverbs by the sense, you would know them by 
their answ^ering to the questions. However, your better v/ay will 
be to distinguish adverbs by considering the office they perform 
in the sentence ; or by noticing their gramm,atical relation, or 
their situation, with respect to other words. To gain a thorough 
knowledge of their real character, is highly important. Rapidly, 
fast, far aicay, soon, sweetly, &c. are known to be adverbs by 
their qualifying the sense of verbs. "A very good pen writes 
extremely welL^^ Well, in this sentence, is known to be an ad- 
verb by its qualifying the sense of the verb writes ; extreraely, 
by its ending in ly, or by its being joined to the adverb well to 
qualify it ; and very is known as an adverb by its joining the 
adjective good. 

Expressions like these, none at all, a great deal, a few days 
ago, long since, at length, in vain, when they are used to denote 
the manner or time of the action of verbs or participles, are gen- 
erally called adverbial phrases. 

more words ; as, " He did it kerc,^^ for, He did it in this place ; there, for, in 
that place ; tvhere, for, in what place ; now, for, at this time. Why means /or 
what reason ; hoic — in what mind, inood, mode, or manner ; exceedingly — to a 
great degree ; very — in an eminent degree ; often and seldom signify many 
limes, few times. 

The procedures by which words have been conti'acted, modified and com- 
bined, to form this class of words, have been various. The most prolific 
family of this illegitimate race, are those in ly, a contraction of like. Gentle^ 
man-ly, means gentleman-like, like a gentleman. We do not yet say, ladily, 
but lady-like. The north Britons still say, wiselike, manlike, instead of, wise- 
ly, manly. 

Quick comes from gwick, the past part, of the Anglo-Saxon verb gwiccian, 
\jo vivify, give life. Quick-ly or live-ly, means, in a quick-like or life-like man- 
ner ; in the manner of a creature that has life. Rapid-ly — rapid-like, like a 
rap'd ; a quick-ly or swift-ly running place in a sti'eam. 

Al'frays, contraction of in all ways. By a slight transition, it means in oi 



86 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 

Adverbs, though very numerousj may, for the sake of practicnl 
convenience, be reduced to particular classes. 

1. Of Number ; as, Once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of Order ; as, First, secondly, lastly, finally, &;c. 

3. Of Place ; as, Here, there, where, elsewhere, anywhere, 
somewhere, nowhere, herein, whither, hither, thither, up- 
ward, downward, forward, backward, whence, thence, 
whithersoever, &;c. 

4. Of Time. 

Present; as, Now, to day, &;c. 

Past; as. Already, before, lately, yesterday, heretofore, 
hitherto, long since, long ago, &c. 

Future; as, To-morrow, not yet, hereafter, henceforth, 
henceforward, by and by, instantly, presently, immediately, 
ere long, straightways, &c. 

Time indefinite ; as. Oft, often, oft-times, often-times, some- 
times, soon, seldom, daily, weekly, monthly, yearly, always, 
when, then, ever, never, again, &c. 

5., Of Quantity; as, Much, little, sufficiently, how much, ho^\ 
great, enough, abundantly, &;c. 

0. Of Manner or quality ; as. Wisely, foolishly, justly, un- 
justly, quickly, slowly, &c. Adverbs of quality are the 
most numerous kind ; and they are generally formed by 
adding the termination ly to an adjective or a participle, or 
by changing le into ly ; as. Bad, badly ; cheerful, cheer- 
fully ; able, ably ; admirable, admirably. 

7. Of Boult; as, Haply, perhaps, perad venture, possibly, per- 
chance. 

8. Of Affirmation; as. Verily, truly, undoubtedly, doubtless, 
certainly, yea, yes, surely, indeed, really, &;c. 

9. Of Negation ; as. Nay, no, not, by no means, not at all, 
in no wise, &;c. 

10. Of Interrogation ; as, How, why, wherefore, whither, &:c., 
and sometimes when, whence, where. 

at all times. Al-one, contraction of all-one. On-ly — one-liJce. Also — all the 
same {thmg.) Ever — an age. For ever and ever — hr ages and ages. Ever 
is not synonymous with always. Never — ne ever. It signifies no age, no 
period of time. No, contraction of not. Not, a modification of no-thing 
noth-ing, naught. " He is not greater" — is greater in naught — in no thing. 

Adrift is the past part, adrifed, adrifd, adrift; from the Saxon drifan, oi 
adrifan, to drive. Ago, formerly written ygo, gon, agon, gone, agone, is the 
past part, of the verb to go. It refers to time gone by. Asunder, the Saxon 
part, asundren, from the verb sondrian or asondrian, to separate. Aloft — on 
the loft, on lift, on lyft; lyft being the Anglo-Saxon word for air or clouds 
Astray, the part, of straegan, to stray. Aiory, part, of wry than, to writhe. 

Needs — need-is ; anciently, nedes, nede is. 



ADVERBS. PARSING. 87 

11. Of Comparison; as, More, most, better, best, worse, worst, 
less, least, very, almost, little, alike, &;c. 
NOTES. 

1. This ca.t&:o^iie contains but a small portion of the adverbs in onr Ian 
guage. Many adverbs are foi-med by a combination of prepositions with the 
adverbs of place, here, there, where; as, Hereof, thereof, whereof; hereto, 
thereto, whereto ; hereby, thereby, whereby ; herewith, therewith, where- 
with ; herem, therein, wherem ; therefore, (i. e. there-for,) wherefore, (i. e. 
where-for,) hereupon, hereon, thereupon, thereon, whereupon, whereon. Sec. 

2. Some adverbs are composed of noims or verbs and the letter a, used 
instead of at, on, &:c. ; as. Aside, athirst, afoot, asleep, aboard, ashore, abed, 
agroimd, afloat, adnft, aghast, ago, askance, away, asunder, asti'ay, &c. 

You will now please to read this lecture four times over, and 
read slowly and carefully, for unless you understand v/ell the 
nature and character of this part of speech, you will be fre- 
quently at a loss to distinguish it from others in composition. 
Now do you notice, that, in this sentence which you have just 
read, the words slowly, carefully, well, and frequently, are adverbs ? 
And do you again observe, that, in the question I have just put 
to you, the words noio and just are adverbs ? Exercise a little 
sober thought. Fifteen minutes spent in reflection, are worth 
whole days occupied in careless reading. 

In the following exercises six parts of speech are presented, 
namely, Nouns, Verbs, Articles, Adjectives, Participles, and Ad- 
verbs ; and I believe you are now prepared to parse them all 
agreeably to the systematic order, four times over. Those words 
in italics are adverbs. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adverb, is — an adverb, 
and why ? — what sort ? — -what does it qualify ?— 
Rule. 

" My friend has returned again; but his health is 7iot very good." 
Agsin, is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of a 
verb — of time indefinite, it expresses a period of time not pre- 
cisely defined — it qualifies the verb "has returned," according to 

To-icit, the infinitive of witan, to know. It means, to be known. 

Ay or yea signifies have it, enjoy it. Yes is ay-es, have, possess, enjoy that. 
Our corrupt o-yes of the crier, is the French imperative, oyez, hear, listen. 

Straight way — by a straight way. While — wheel; period in which somo- 
thing whiles or wheels itself round. Till — to while. 

Per, Latin, — the English by. Perhaps — per haps, per chance. 

These examples of derivation are given with the view to invite the atten- 
tion of the intelli°rent pupil to the " Diversions of Pcrley, by John Home 



88 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Rule 29. Adverbs qualify verbs ^ 'partici'pleSf adjectives, ana 
other adverbs. 

Not is an adverb, a word used to modify the sense of an ad- 
verb — -of negation, it makes the assertion negative ; that is, it 
changes the proposition from an affirmative to a negative — and 
it qualifies the adverb '^ very,^^ agreeably to Rule 29. Adverbs 
qualify verbs, ^c. 

Very is an adverb, a word used to qualify the sense of an ad- 
jective — of comparison, it compares the adjective " good," and 
qualifies it according to Rule 29. Adverbs qualify adjectives, SfC, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The traveller described a lofty castle decaying gradually. 
Very few literary men ever become distinguished poets. The 
great Milton excels not Homer. The Roman women once, vol- 
untarily contributed their most precious jewels to save the city. 

Many small streams uniting, form very large rivers. The 
river Funza falling perpendicula?'ly, forms a vast cataract. Atten- 
tive servants always drive horses very carefully ; negligent ser- 
vants ofteri drive horses very carelessly. Assiduous scholars 
improve very fast ; idle scholars learn none at all. Friendship 
often ends in love ; but love in friendship, never. 

Note. Several adverbs frequently qualify one verb. Have you walked \ 
Not yet quite far enough, perhaps. Not, yet, far, and enough, qualify "have 
walked" understood ; perhaps quahfies not ; and quite qualifies far. The 
adverbs always and carefully both qualify the verb ''drive :" the former ex- 
presses time, and the latter, manner. Once and voluntarily qualify the verb 
*' contributed ;" the foraier expresses n7imher, and the latter, manner. T!ie 
Vv^ord their you need not parse. The active verb to save has no nominative. 
The nouns love and friendship, following in, are in the objective cast;, and 
governed by that preposition. 

REMARKS ON ADVERBS. 

When the words therefore, consequently, accordingly , and the like, are Uiik'A 
in connexion w^ith other conjunctions, they are adverbs ; but when they ap- 
pear single, they are commonly considered conjunctions. 

The words ivhen and where, and all others of the same nature, such as 
whence, whither, whenever, wherever, till, until, before, otherioise, while, where- 
fore, &c. may be properly called adverbial conjunctio7is, because they partici- 
pate the nature both of adverbs and conjunctions ; of adverbs, as they de- 
note the attributes either of tiine or place; of conjunctions, as they conjoin 
sentences. 

There are many words that are sometimes used as adjectives, and some- 
times as adverbs ; as, " More men than women were there ; I am more dili- 
gent than he." In the former sentence more is evidently an adjective, for it 
is joined to a noun to qualify it ; m the latter it is an adverb, because it quali- 
fies an adjective. There are others that are sometimes used as nouns, and 
sometimes as adverbs ; as, " to-day^s lesson is longer than yesterday'' s.^"* la 
this example, to-day and yesterday are nours in the possessive case; but in 



ADVERBS. 89 

phrases like the following, they are generally considered adverbs of time 
" He came \_to his'] home yesterday, and will set out again to-day^ Here 
they are nouns, if we supply on before them. 

*' Where much {^icealth, talent, or something else] is given, much {^increase, 
improvement^ will be required ; Much money has been expended ; It is 7nuch 
better to write than starve." In the first two of these examples, miich is an 
adjective, because it qualifies a noun ; in the last, an adverb, because it 
qualifies the adjective better. In short, j^ou must determine to what part of 
speech a word belongs, by its sense, or by considering the manner in which 
it is associated with other words. 

An adjective may, in general, be distinguished from an ahverb by this rule ; 
when a word qualifies a noun or pronouii, it is an adjective, but when it 
qualifies a verb, participle, adjective, or adverb, it is an adverb. 

Prepositions are sometimes eiToneously called adverbs, w^hen their nouns 
are miderstood. ''He rides about;'''' that is, about the toicn, country, or 
some-thing else. " She was near [the act or misfortune of] falling ;" " But 
do not afler [that time or event~\ lay the blame on me." '' He came dovm 
[the ascent] from the hill ;" " They lifted him up [the ascent] out of the pit." 
" The angels above ;^^ — above us — '' Above these lower heavens, to us invisi- 
ble, or dimly seen." 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false 
Syntax, you may answer these 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Does an adverb ever qualify a noun ? — What parts of speech 
does it qualify ? — When an adverb qualifies a verb or participle, 
what does it express ? — When an adverb qualifies an adjective 
or adverb, what does it generally express ? — Compare some ad- 
verbs. — By v/hat signs may an adverb be known ? — Give exam- 
ples. — Repeat some adverhial phrases, — Name the different 
classes of adverbs. — Repeat some of each class. — Repeat the 
order of parsing an adverb. — What rule do you apply in parsing 
an adverb ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE NOTES. 

Repeat some adverbs that are fomied by combining prepositions with ad- 
verbs of place. — Repeat some that are composed of the article a and nouns. 
— What part of speech are the words, therefore, consequently, &c.? — ^Vhat 
words are styled adverbial conjunctions 1 — Why are they so called ? — Is the 
same word sometimes used as an adjective, and sometimes as an adverb ?— 
Give examples. — AVhat is said of much 7 — By what rule can you distinguish 
an adjective from an adverb ? — Do prepositions ever become adverbs ? 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

How does the use of adverbs contribute to the conciseness of language ? — 
Illustrate the fact. — What is said of ly, like, and quick ? — How are the fol- 
lowing words composed, always, alone, only, also ? — What is the meaning 
of ever, never, not, adrift, ago, asunder, aloft, astray, aicry 7 — Give the sig- 
nification of ?teeds, to-wit, ye, yes, o-yes, straighticay, lohile, till, and per. 

Note. Learners need not answer the questions on the Philosophical Notes. 
m this or any other Lecture, unless the teacher deem it expedient. 



90 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note 3, to Rule 29. Adjectives are sometimes improperly 
applied as adverbs ; as, indifferent honest ; excellent well ; mis- 
erable poor : — She writes elegant ; He is walking slow. 

The adjectives indifferent, excellent, and miserable, are here improperly 
used, because adjectives do not express the degree of adjectives or adverbs, 
but such modifications are denoted by adverbs. The phrases should, there- 
fore, be, *' indifferently honest, excellently w^ell, miserably poor." Elegant 
and slow are also inaccurate, for it is not the office of the adjective to express 
the manner, time, or place of the action of verbs and participles, but it is 
the office of the adverb. The constructions should be, " She writes elegant- 
ly; He is v^alking slowly.''^ 

You may correct the following examples several times over, 
and explain the principles that are violated. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

He speaks fluent, and reasons coherent. 

She reads proper, and writes very neat. 

They once lived tolerable well, but now they are miserable 
poor. 

The lowering clouds are moving slow. 

He behaved himself submissive, and was exceeding careful not 
to give offence. 

Note 4, to Rule 29. Adverbs are sometimes improperly used 
instead of adjectives ; as, " The tutor addressed him in terms 
rather warm, but suiially to his offence." 

The adverb suitably is incorrect. It does not express the manner of the 
action of the verb " addressed," but it denotes the quality of the noun terms 
understood ; for which reason it should be an adjective, suitable. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

The man was slowly wandering about, solitarily and distressed. 

He lived in a manner agreeably to his condition. 

The study of Syntax should be 'previously to that of Punctua- 
tion. 

He introduced himself in a manner very ahrwptly. 

Conformably to their vehemence of thought, was their vehe 
mence of gesture. 

I saw him previously to his arrival. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



91 



LECTURE Vn. 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

A Preposition is a word which serves to connect 
words, and show the relation between them. 

The term preposition is derived from the two Latin words, pre 
which signifies before, and pono, to place. Prepositions are so 
called, because they are mostly placed before the nouns and pro- 
nouns which they govern in the objective case. 

The principal prepositions are presented in the following list, 
which you may now commit to memory, and thus you will be en- 
abled to distinguish them from other parts of speech whenever 
you see them in composition. 

A LIST OF THE PREPOSITIONS. 



of 


over 


at 


after 


betwixt 


to 


under 


near 


about 


beside 


for 


through 


up 


against 


athwart 


by 


above 


down 


unto 


towards 


vvith 


below 


before 


across 


notwithstandini 


in 


between 


behind 


around 


out of 


into 


beneath 


off 


amidst 


instead of 


wiihin 


from 


on upon 


throughout 


over against ^ 
according to 


without 


beyond 


among 


midemeath 



This list contains many words that are sometimes used as con- 
junctions, and sometimes as adverbs ; but when you shall have 
become acquainted with the nature of the preposition, and of the 
conjunction and adverb too, you. will find no difficulty^ in ascer- 
taining to which of these classes any word belongs. 

By looking at the definition of a preposition, you will notice, 
th^t it performs a double office in a sentence, namely, it connects 
words, and also shows a relation between them. I will first show 
you the use and importance of this part of speech as a connect- 
ive. When corn is ripe — October, it is gathered — the field — 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

From, according to H. Tooke, is the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic noun/?^*w, 
beginning, source, author. '' He came from (beginning) Rochester." Of 
he supposes to be a fragment of the Gothic and Saxon noun afora, conse- 
quence, offspring, follower. " Solomon, the son of (offspring) David." Of 
or off, in its modern acceptation, signifies disjoined, sundered : A piece of 
(off) the loaf, is, a piece disjoined, or separated from the loaf. The fragrance 
of or off the rose. 

For signifies cause. ** I write /or your satisfaction ;" i. e. your satisfaction 
being the cciiise. By or he is the imperative hyth, of the Saxon beon, to be. 
Wifh,ihe imperative oi witha/n to join ; or, when equivalent to by, of wyr- 



92 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

nien — who go — hill — hill — baskets, — which they put the ears 
You perceive, that in this sentence there is a total want of con- 
nexion and meaning ; but let us fill up each vacancy with a 
preposition, and the sense will be clear. " When corn is ripe,in 
October, it is gathered in the field hy men, who go from hill to 
hill with baskets, into which they put the ears." 

From this illustration you are convinced, no doubt, that oui 
language would be very deficient without prepositions to connect 
the various words of which it is composed. It would, in fact, 
amount to nothing but nonsense. There is, however, another part 
of speech that performs this ofiice, namely, the conjunction. 
This will be explained in Lecture IX. ; in which lecture you will 
learn, that the nature of a preposiHon, as a connective particle, 
is nearly allied to that of a conjunction. In the next place I 
will show you how prepositions express a relation between 
words. 

The boy's hat is under his arm. In this expression, what 
relation does the preposition under show ? You know that hat 
and arm are words used as signs of two objects, or ideas ; but 
under is not the sign of a thing you can think of: it is merely 
the sign of the relation existing between the two objects. Hence 
you may perceive, that since the word under is the sign of the 
relation existing between particular ideas, it also expresses a rela- 
tion existing between the words hat and arm^ which words are the 
representatives of those ideas. 

The boy holds his hat in his hand. In this sentence the prepo- 
sition in shows the relation existing between hat and hand, or the 
situation, gr relative position, each has in regard to the other. And, 
if I say. The boy's hat is on his head, you perceive that on shows 
the relation between hat and head. Again, in the expressions, 
The boy threw his hat wp stairs — under the bed — hehind the ta- 
ble — through the window — over the house — across the street — into 
the water — and so on, you perceive that the several prepositions ex- 

than, to be. *' I will go with him." '' I, join him, will go." In comes from 
the Gothic noun inna, the interior of the body ; a cave or cell. About, from 
hoda, the first outward boundary. Among is the past part, of gamaengan, 
to mingle. Through or thorough is the Gothic substantive daurOj or the 
Teutonic thuruh. It means passage, gate, door. 

Before — be-fore, be-hind, be-low, beside, besides, be-neath, are formed by 
combining the imperative be, with the nouns fore, hind, low, side, neath, 
Neath — Saxon neothan, neothe, has the same signiiicauon as nadir. Be-tween^ 
be-twixt — be and tioain. A dual preposition. Be-yona — be-passed. Beyond 
a place, means, be passed that place. 

Notioithstanding — notstand-mg-with, not-withstanding. '* Any order to the 
contrary not- withstanding" (this order;) i. e. not effectually withstanding or 
opposing it. 



PREPOSITIONS. PARSING. 93 

press the different relations existing between the hat and the other 
nouns, stairs^ bed, table, window, house, street, and water. 

A preposition tells where a thing is : thus, " The pear is on the 
ground, under the tree." 

Prepositions govern the objective case, but they do not express 
an action done to some object, as an active-transitive verb or par- 
ticiple does. When a noun or pronoun follows a preposition, it 
is in the objective case, because it is the object of the relation 
expressed by the preposition, and not the object of an action, 

I can now give you a more extensive explanation of the objec- 
tive case, than that which was given in a former lecture. I have 
already informed you, that the objective case expresses the object 
of an action or of a relation ; and, also, that there are three parts 
of speech which govern nouns and pronouns in the objective 
case, namely, active-transitive verbs, participles derived from 
transitive verbs, and prepositions, A noun or pronoun in the ob- 
jective case, cannot be, at the same time, the object of an action 
and of a relation. It must be either the object of an action or 
of a relation. And I wish you particularly to remember, that 
Vvhenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a transitive verb 
or participle, it is the object of an action ; as. The tutor 
instructs his pupils ; or. The tutor is i7istructing his pupils ; but 
whenever a noun or pronoun is governed by a preposition, it is 
the object of a relation ; as. The tutor gives good instruction to 
his pupils. 

Before you proceed to parse the following examples, please 
to review this lecture, and then the whole seven in the manner 
previously recommended, namely, read one or two sentences, and 
then look off your book and repeat them two or three times over 
in your mind. This course will enable you to retain the most 
important ideas advanced. If you wish to proceed with ease and 
advantage, you must have the subject-matter of the preceding 
lectures stored in your mind. Do not consider it an unpleasant 
task to comply with my requisitions, for when you shall have 
learned thus far, you will understand seven parts of speech ; and 
only three more will remain to be learned. 

If you have complied with the foregoing request, you may 
commit the following order, and then proceed in parsing. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Preposition, is — a prepo- 
sition, and why '{ — what does it connect ? — what rela- 
tion does it show ? 



94 ' ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



I 



" He saw an antelope in the wilderness ,^^ 
In is a preposition, a word which serves to connect words, and 
show the relation between them — it connects i/ie words " ante- 
lope " and " wilderness " — and shows the relation between them. 
Wilderness is a noun, the name of a place — com. the name of 
a sort or species — neut. gend. it denotes a thing without sex — 
third pers. spoken of — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the 
objective case, it is the object of a relation expressed by the pre 
position " in,'' and governed by it, according to 
Rule 31. Prepositions govern the objective case. 
The genius of our language will not allow us to say. Stand 
before he ; Hand the paper to they. Prepositions require the pro- 
noun following them to be in the objective form, position, or case ; 
and this requisition amounts to government. Hence we say, 
" Stand before him y'' " Hand the paper to ihem.^^ Every pre- 
position expresses a relation, and every relation must have an 
olject : consequently, every preposition must be followed by a 
noun or pronoun in the objective case. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Tne all-wise Creator bestowed the power of speech upon man, 
for the most excellent uses. Augustus heard the orator pleading 
the <jlient's cause, in a flow of most powerful eloquence. Fair 
Cynthia smiles serenely over nature's soft repose. Life's vary- 
ing schemes no more distract the laboring mind of man. Septi- 
mius stabbed Pompey standing on the shore of Egypt. 

A beam of tranquillity often plays round the heart of the truly 
pious man. The thoughts of former years glide over my soul, 
like swift-shooting meteors over Ardven's gloomy vales. 

At the approach of day, night's swift dragons cut the clouds 
full fast ; and ghosts, wandering here and there, troop home to 
church-yards. 

Love still pursues an ever devious race, 
True to the winding lineaments of grace. 

Note. — The w^ords my and and yoa need not parse. The noun " meteors," 
following the adverb ''like," is in the objective case, and governed by unto 
understood, according to Note 2, under Rule 32. The noun ** home" is 
governed by to understood, according to Rule 32. 

REMARKS ON PREPOSITIONS AND VERBS. 

A noun or pronoun in the objective case, is often governed by a preposi 
ti^n understood; as, " Give him that book;" that is, "Give that book to 
him ;" " Ortugrul was one day wandering," &c. that is, on one day. *' Mer 
cy gives affliction a grace ;" that is, Mercy gives a grace to affliction. See 
Note 1, under Rule 32. 

To be able to make a proper use of prepositions, particular attention is 
requisite. There is a peculiar propriety to be observed in the use of hy and 



PRONOUNS. 95 

with; as, *' He walks with a staff hy moonligL ;" *' He was taken by strata 
gem, and killed with a sword." Put tlie one preposition for the other, and 
say, " He w^alks by a ^ta.^ with moonlight ;" " He was talven with stratagem, 
and killed by a sword ;" and it will appear, that the latter expressions differ 
from the former in signification, more than one, at first view, woidd be apt 
to imagine. 

Verbs are often compounded of a verb and a preposition ; as, to M/?hold, to 
zM^Astand, to overXook ; and this composition gives a new meaning to the 
verb ; as, to under^tm\d, to ^'zY^draw, to /orgive. But the preposition is 
more frequently placed after the verb, and separately from it, like an ad- 
verb ; in which situation it does not less affect the sense of the verb, and 
give it a new meaning ; and in all instances, whether the preposition is placed 
either before or after the verb, if it gives a new meaning to the verb, it may 
be considered as a part of the verb. Thus, to cast mean^ to throw; but to 
cast up an account, signifies to compute it ; therefore 7bp is a part of the verb. 
The phrases, to fall on, to bear out, to give over, convey very different mean- 
ings from what they would if the prepositions on, out, and over, were not 
used. Verbs of this kuid are called compound verbs. 

You may now answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term preposition derived ? — Why is i* 
thus named ? — Repeat the list of prepositions. — Name the three 
parts of speech that govern nouns and pronouns in the objective 
case. — When is a noun or pronoun in the objective case, the 
object of an action ?-— When is it the object of a relation ? — 
Repeat the order of parsing a preposition. — What rule do you 
apply in parsing a noun or pronoun governed by a preposition ? — 
Does every preposition require an objective case after it ? — Is a 
noun or pronoun ever governed by a preposition understood ? — 
Give examples. — What is said of verbs compounded of a verb 
and preposition ? — Give the origin and meaning of the preposi- 
tions explained in the Philosophical Notes, 



LECTURE Vlli 

OF PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used instead of a noun, and 
generally to avoid the too frequent repetition of the 
same word. A pronoun is, likewise, sometimes a 
substitute for a sentence, or member of a sentence. 

The word pronoun comes from the two Latin words, pro, which 
means ybr, or instead of, and nomen, a name, or noun. Hence 



96 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

you perceive, that pronoun means for a noun, or instead of a 
noun. 

In the sentence, " The man is happy ; he is benevolent ; he is 
useful ;" you perceive, that the word he is used instead of the 
noun man ; consequently he must be a pronoun. You observe, 
too, that, by making use of the pronoun he in this sentence, we 
avoid the repetition of the noun man, for without the pronoun, the 
sentence would be rendered thus, "■ The man is happy ; the man 
ts benevolent ; the man is useful.'^ 

By looking again at the definition, you will notice, that pro- 
nouns always stand for nouns, but they do not always avoid the 
repetition of nouns. Repetition means repeating or mentioning 
the same thing again. In the sentence, " I come to die for my 
country,^^ the pronouns, / and my, stand for the name of the per- 
son who speaks ; but they do not avoid the repetition of that name, 
because the name or noun for which the pronouns are used, is 
not mentioned at all. Pronouns of the third person, generally 
avoid the repetition of the nouns for which they stand ; but pro- 
nouns of the first and second person, sometimes avoid the repeti- 
tion of nouns, and sometimes they do not. 

A little farther illustration of the pronoun will show you its 
importance, and, also, that its nature is very easily comprehendea. 
If we had no pronouns in our language, we should be obliged to 
express ourselves in this manner : " A woman went to a man, 
and told the man that the man was in danger of being murdered 
by a gang of robbers ; as a gang of robbers had made prepara- 
tions for attacking the man. The man thanked the woman for 
the woman's kindness, and, as the man was unable to defend 
the man's self, the man left the man's house, and went to a 
neighbor's." 

This would be a laborious style indeed ; but, by the help of 
pronouns, we can express the same ideas with far greater ease 
and conciseness : " A woman went to a man, and told him, that 
he was in great danger of being murdered by a gang of robbers, 
ivho had made preparations for attacking him. He thanked her foi 
her kindness, and, as he was unable to defend himsef, he left his 
house and went to a neighbor's." 

If you look at these examples a few moments, you cannot be 
at a loss to tell which words are pronouns ; and you will observe, 
too, that they all stand for nouns. 

Pronouns are generally divided into three kinds^ 
the Personal^ the Adjective., and the Relative pro- 
Qouns. They are all known by the lists. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 97 

1. OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Personal Pronouns are distinguished from the 
relative, by their denoting the person of the nouns 
for which they stand. There are five of them; /, 
thou^ he, she, it ; with their plurals, We, ye or you. 
they. 

To pronouns belong gender, person, number, and 
case. 

Gender. When we speak of a man,WQ say, Ae, his, him y 
when we speak of a woman^ we say, she, liers^ her ; and when we 
speak of a tiling, we say it. Hence you perceive, that gender 
belongs to pronouns as well as to nouns. Example ; " The gen- 
eral, in gratitude to the lady, offered her his hand ; but she, 
not knowing him, declined accepting it^ The pronouns his and 
him, in this sentence, personate or represent the noun general ; 
they are, therefore, of the masculine gender : her and she per- 
sonate the lady ; therefore, they are feminine : and it represents 
hand ; for which reason it is of the neuter gender. This illus- 
tration shows you, then, that pronouns must be of the same gen- 
der as the nouns are for which they stand. But, as it relates to 
the variation of the pronouns to express the sex, 

Gender has respect only to the third person sin- 
gular of the pronouns, he, she, it. He is masculine ; 
she is feminine ; it is neuter. 

You may naturally inquire, why pronouns of the first and 
second persons are not varied to denote the gender of their nouns, 
as well as of the third. The reason is obvious. The first per- 
son, that is, the person speaking, and the second person, or the 
person spoken to, being at the same time the subjects of the dis- 
course, are supposed to be present ; from w^hich, and other cir- 
cumstances, their sex is commonly known, and, therefore, the 
pronouns that represent these persons, need not be marked by a 
distinction of gender ; but the third person, that is, the person or 
thing spoken of, being absent, and in many respects unknown, 
necessarily requires the pronoun that stands for it, to be marked 
oy a distinction of gender. 

In parsing, we sometimes apply gender to pronouns of the first 
and second person, and also to the. plural number of the third 
person ; but these have no peculiar form to denote their gender ; 
therefore they have no agreement, in this respect, with the nouns 
which they represent. 



98 ETYMOLOGY AND SYJNTAX. 

Person. Pronouns have three persons in each 
number. 

7, is the first person ^ 

Thou, is the second person > Singular, 

He, she, or it, is the third person ) 

We, is the first person ^ 

Ye or you, is the second person > Plural. 

They, is the third person J 

This account of persons will be very intelligible, when you 
reflect, that there are three persons who may be the subject of 
any discourse : first, the person who speaks, may speak of him- 
self; secondly, he may speak of the person to whom he addresses 
himself; thirdly, he may speak of some other person ; and as the 
speakers, the persons spoken to, and the persons spoken of, may 
be many, so each of these persons must have a plural number. 

Pronouns of the second and third person, always agree in per- 
son with the nouns they represent ; but pronouns of the first per- 
son, do not. Whenever a pronoun of the first person is used, it 
represents a noun ; but nouns are never of the first person, there- 
fore these pronouns cannot agree in person with their nouns. 

Number. Pronouns, like nouns, have two num- 
bers, the singular and the plural ; as, I, thou, he ; we, 
ye or you, they. 

Case. Pronouns have three cases, the nominative, 
the possessive, and the objective. 

In the next place I will present to you the declension of the 
personal pronouns, which declension you must commit to mem- 
ory before you proceed any farther. 

The advantages resulting from the committing of the follow- 
ing declension, are so great and diversified, that you cannot be 
too particular in your attention to it. You recollect, that it is 
sometimes very difficult to distinguish the nominative case of a 
noun from the objective, because these cases of nouns are not 
marked by a difference in termination ; but this difficulty is re- 
moved in regard to the personal pronouns, for their cases are 
always known by their termhiation. By studying the declension 
you will learn, not only the cases of the pronour s, but, also, their 
genders, persons, and numbers. 



PERSONAL PEONOUNS. 



90 



DECLENSION OF THE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 





FIRST PERSON. 




Sing. 




Plur. 


Norn, I, 




we. 


Poss. my or mine, 


our or ours. 


Ohj. me. 


SECOND PERSON. 


us. 


Sing. 




Plur. 


Nom. thou, 




ye or you. 


Poss. thy or 


thine, 


your or yours 


Obj\ thee. 


THIRD PERSON. 


you. 


Mas. Sing, 




Plur. 


Nom. he, 




they. 


Poss. his, 




their or theirs 


Obj. him. 


THIRD PERSON. 


them. 


Fern. Sing. 




P/wr. 


Nom. she. 




they. 


Poss. her (9r 


hers. 


their or theirs. 


Obj. her. 


THIRD PERSON. 


them. 


iVew?. iSmg. 




Plur. 


iVi9m. it. 




they. 


Poss. its, 


* 


their or theirs, 


0/;/ it. 




them. 



NOTES. 

1. When self is added to the personal pronouns, as himself, myself, itself, 
themselves, &c. they are called compound personal pronouns y and are used in 
the nommative or objective case, but not in the possessive. 

2. In order to avoid the disagreeable harshness of sound, occasioned by the 
frequent recurrence of the terminations est, eds^, in the adaptation of oar 
verbs to the nominanve thou, a modem innovai" .jn which substitutes i/ou for 
tkoUf in familiar style, has generally been adr ^ ted. This innovation contri- 
butes greatly to the harmony of our cojloquia style. You was formerly re- 
stricted to the plural number ; but now^ it \i employed to represent either 
a singular or a plural noun. It ought to be recollected, however, that when 
used as the representative of a singular noun, this word retains its original 
plural form ; and, therefore, the verb connected with it, should always be 



100 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

plural. Inattention to this peculiarity, has betrayed some writers into the 
erroneous conclusion, that, because you implies unity when it represents a 
singular noun, it ought, when thus employed, to be followed by a singular 
verb ; as, " When was you there V " How far was you from the parties?" 
Such a construction, however, is not supported by good usage, nor by analo- 
gy. It is as manifest a sclecism as to say, We am^ or we is. Were it, in any 
case, admissible to connect a singular verb with you, the use of was would 
Btill be ungrammatical, for this form of the verb is confined to the first and 
third persons, and you is second person. Wast being second person, it would 
approximate nearer to correctness to say, you wast. We never use the siu" 
gular of the present tense with you: — you art, you is; you walhest, you 
walks. Why, then, should any attempt be made to force a usage so unnatural 
and gratuitous as the connecting of the singular verb in the past tense with 
this pronoun ? In every point of view, the construction, " When loere you 
there ?" " How far were you from the parties ?" is preferable to the other. 

3. The words my, thy, his, her, our, your, their, are, by many, denominated 
possessive adjective pronouns ; but they always stand for nouns in the posses- 
sive case. They ought, therefore, to be classed with the personal pronouns. 
That principle of classification which ranks them with the adjective pronouns, 
would also throw all nouns in the possessive case among the adjectives. 
Example : " The lady gave the gentleman her watch for his horse." In this 
sentence her personates, or stands for, the noun " lady," and his represents 
*' gentleman." This fact is clearly shown by rendering the sentence thus, 
" The lady gave the gentleman the lady''s watch for the gentleman'' s horse." 
If lady^s and gentleman^ are nomis, her and his must be personal pronouns. 
The same remarks apply to m,y, thy, our, your, their, mi^ its. This view of 
these words may be objected to by those who speculate and refine upon the 
pi-inciples of grammar until they prove their non-existence, but it is believed, 
nevertheless, to be based on sound reason and common sense. 

4. Mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, have, by many respectable 
grammarians, been considered merely the possessive cases of personal pro- 
nouns, whilst, by others, they have been denominated pronouns or noims in 
the nominative or objective case. It is believed, however, that a little atten- 
tion to the meaning and office of these words, will clearly show the impro- 
priety of both these classifications. Those who pursue the former arrange- 
ment, allege, that, in the examples, " You may imagine what kind of faith 
theirs was ; My pleasures are past ; hers and yours are to come ; they ap- 
plauded his conduct, but condemned hers and yours^'' the w^ords theirs, hers, 
and yours, are personal pronouns in the possessive case, and governed by 
their respective nouns understood. To prove this, they construct the sen- 
tence thus, '' You may imagine what kind of faith their faith was ; — her 
pleasures and your pleasures are to come ; — but condemned her conduct and 
your conduct;^'' or thus, ''You may imagine what kind of faith the faith of 
them was ; — the pleasures of her and the pleasures of you, are to come ;— 
but condemned the conduct of her and the conduct of you." But these con- 
structions, (both of which are correct,) prove too much for their purpose ; 
for, as soon as we supply the nouns after these w^ords, they are resolved into 
personal pronouns of kind '-ed meaning, and the nouns which we supply : 
thus theirs becomes, their ta th : hers, her pleasures ; and yours, your pleas- 
ures. This evidently gives :; - two words instead of, and altogether distinct 
from, the first; so that, in parsing, their faith, we are not, in reality, analy- 
zing their s^ but two other woris of which theirs is the proper representa- 
tive. These remarks also prove, with equal force, the impropriety of calling 
these words merely simple pronouns or nouns in the nominative or objective 
case Without attempting to develop the original or intrinsic meaning of 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. ?/ RSING. lOJ 

these pluralizing adjuncts, ne and s, which were, no doubt, formerly detached 
from the pronouns with which they now coalesce, for all practical purposes, 
it is sufficient for us to know, that, in the present appHcation of these pro- 
nouns, they invariably stand for, not only the person possessing, but, also the 
thing possessed, which giv^es them a eompound character. They may, there- 
fore, be properly denominated Compound Personal Pronouns; and, as 
they always perform a double office in a sentence by representing two 
other words, and, consequently, includmg two cases, they should, like tlie 
compound relative what, be parsed as two words. Thus, in the example, 
^* You may imagine what kind of faith theirs was," theirs is a compomid per- 
sonal pronoun, equivalent to their faith. Their is a pronoun, a word used 
instead of a noun ; personal, it personates the persons s])oken of, understood ; 
third pers. plur. numb., &c, — and in the- possessive case, and governed by 
" faith," according to Rule 12. Faith is a noun, the name of a thing, &c. 
&c. — and in the nominative case to " v\^as," and governs it; Rule 3. Or, if 
we render the sentence thus, ** You may imagine what kind of faith ^^e 
faith of them* wsis,^^ faith would be in the nominative case to " was," and 
them would be in the objective case, and governed b}'' ''of:" Rule 31. 

Objections to this method of treating these pronouns, will doubtless be 
preferred by those who assert, that a noun is understood after these words, 
and not represented by tliem. But this is assertion without proof; for, if a 
noun were understood, it might be supplied. If the question be put, whose 
book ? and the answ^er be, mine, ours, hers, or theirs, the word book is inclu- 
ded in such answer. Were it not included, we might supply it, thus, mine 
book, ours book, hers book, and so on. This, however, we cannot do, for it 
would be giving a double answer : but when the question is answered by a 
noun in the possessive case, the word book is not included, but implied ; as, 
Whose book ? John's, Richard's ; that is, John's book; Richard's book. 

This view of the subject, without a parallel, except in the compounds what, 
whoever, and others, is respectfully submitted to the public ; believing, that 
those who approve of a critical analysis of words, will coincide with me. 
Should any still be disposed to treat these words so supei-ficially as to rank 
them among the simple pronouns, let them answer the following interroga- 
toiy: If what, when compound, should be parsed as two words, why not 
mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, and theirs? 

5. Mine and tJiine, instead of my and thy, are used in solemn style, before 
a word beginning wnth a vowel or silent h ; as, " Blot out all inine iniquities;'* 
and when thus used, they are not compound. His always has the seme 
forai, whether simple or compound ; as, '* Give John his book ; That desk is 
his.^'' Her, when placed before a noun, is in the possessive case ; as, Take 
her hat : when standing alone, it is in the objective case ; as, Give the hat to her 

When you shall have studied this lecture attentively, and com- 
rriitted the declension of the personal pronouns you may commit 
the following 

SY>STEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing a Personal Pronoun, is — a 

* In the note i^ext preceding, it is asserted, that my, thy, his, her, our, 
your, and their, are personal pronouns. What can more clearly demonstrate 
the correctness v>f that assertion, than this latter construction of tlie word 
theirs ? All admit, that, in the construction, '* The faith of them'' the word 
them is a personal pronoun • and for this conclusive reason : — it represents a 

9* 



102 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

pronoun, and why? — personal, and why? — person, 
and why? — gender and number, and why? — Rule: 
case, and why ? — Rule. — Decline it. 

There are many peculiarities to be observed in parsing per- 
sonal pronouns in their different persons ; therefore, if you wish 
ever to parse them correctly, you must pay particular attention 
to the manner in which the following are analyzed. Now notice, 
particularly, and you will perceive that we apply only one rule 
in parsing I and my, and two in parsing thou, Mm, and they. 
" I saw my friend." 

J is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it ' 
represents the person speaking, understood — first person, it de- 
notes the speaker — singular number, it implies but one — and in 
the nominative case, it represents the actor and subject of the 
verb " saw," and governs it, agreeably to Rule 3. The nom. 
case gov. the verb. Declined — first pers. sing. num. nom. I, poss. 
my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or ours, obj. us. 

My is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
personates the person speaking, understood — first pers. it denotes 
the speaker — sing. num. it implies but one — and in the possessive 
case, it denotes possession ; it is governed by the noun " friend," 
agreeably to Rule 12. A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, 
is governed hy the noun it possesses. Declined — first pers. sing, 
nom. I, poss. my or mine, obj. me. Plur. nom. we, poss. our or 
ours, obj. us. 

" Young man, thou hast deserted thy companion, and left him in 
distress." 

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates " man " — second person, it represents the person 
spoken to — mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun "man" is 
for which it stands, according to 

Rule 13. Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand in gender and number. 

Thou is in the nom. case, it represents the actor and subject of 
the verb " hast deserted," and governs it agreeably to Rule 3. 
The nom. case governs the verb . ^ Declined — sec. pers. sing, num 
nom. thou, poss. thy or thine, obj. thee. Plur. nom. ye oi you, 
poss. your or yours, obj. you. 

Him is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
personates '* companion " — third pers. it represents the person 

noun understood. What, then, is their, m the phrase, " their faith V Is it 
not obvious, that, if them is a personal pronoun, their must be, also ? for the 
latter represents the same noun as the former. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. PARSING. IQg 

spoken of — mas. gend. sing. num. because the noun ^companion" 
is for which it stands: Rule 13. Fers. pro. c^c. (Repeat the 
Rule.) — Hwi is m the objective case, the object of the action 
expressed by the active-transitive verb *' hast left," and gov. by 
it: Rule 20. Active-trans, verbs gov. the ohj, case. Declined — 
third pers, mas, gend. sing. num. nom. he, poss. his, obj. him. 
Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. them. 

" Thrice I raised my voice, and called the chiefs to combat; 
but they dreaded the force of my arm." 

They is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
represents " chiefs" — third pers. it denotes the persons spoken of — 
mas. gend. plur. num. because the noun "chiefs" is for which it 
stands : Rule 13. Pers. Pron. &fc. (Repeat the Rule.) It is 
the nom. case, it represents the actors and subject of the verb 
"dreaded," and governs it: Rule 3. The nom, case^ gov. the 
verb. Declined — third pers. mas. gend. sing. num. nom. he, 
poss. his, obj. him. Plur. nom. they, poss. their or theirs, obj. 
them. 

Note. We do not apply gender in parsing the personal pronouns, (ex- 
cepting the third person singular,) if the nouns they represent are under- 
stood ; and therefore we do not, in such instances, apply Rule 13. But when 
the noun is expressed, gender should be applied, and two Rules, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

I saw a man leading his horse slowly over the new bridge. 
My friends visit me very often at my father's office. We im- 
prove ourselves by close application. Horace, thou learnest 
many lessons. Charles, you, by your diligence, make easy work 
of the task given you by your preceptor. Young ladies, you run 
over your lessons very carelessly. The stranger drove his horses 
too far into the water, and, in so doing, he drowned them. 

Gray morning rose in the east. A green narrow vale appeared 
before us : its winding stream murmured through the grove. 
The dark host of Rothmar stood on its banks with their glittering 
spears. We fought along the vale. They fled. Rothmar sunk 
beneath my sword. Day was descending in the west, when I 
brought his arms to Crothar. The aged hero felt them with his 
hands : joy brightened his thoughts. 

Note. Horace, Charles, and ladies, are of the second person, and nom. 
case independent : see Rule 5, and Note. The first you is used in the nom. 
poss. and obj. case. — It represents Charles, therefore it is singular in sense, 
although plural in fonii. In the next example, you personifies ladies, there- 
fore it is plural. Given is a perfect participle. You following given, is gov- 
erned by to understood, according to N)te 1, under Rule 32. Run over is a 
compound verb. Aiid is a conjunction. The first its personates vale; the 
second its represents stream. 



104 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

You may now parse the following examples thr^^.e times over. 
COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUXS. 
" Juliet, retain her paper, and present yoars.'^ 

Yours is a compound personal pronoun, representing both the 
possessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to your paper. 
Your is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, it 
personates "Juliet" — second person, it represents the person spo- 
ken to — fem. gender, sing, number, (singular in sense, but plural 
in form,) because the noun Juliet is for which it stands : Rule 
13. Pers, Pron, SfC, — Your is in the possessive case, it denotes 
possession, and is governed by " paper," according to Rule 12. 
A noun or pron, ^c, (Repeat the Rule, and decline the pro- 
noun.) Paper is a noun, the name of a thing — common, the 
name of a sort of things — neuter gender, it denotes a thing with- 
out sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but 
one — ^and in the obj. case, it is the object of the action expressed 
by the transitive verb " present," and governed by it : Rule 20. 
Actwe4ransiiive verbs govern the ohj, case. 

Note. Should it be objected, that yours does not mean your paper, any 
more than it means your book, your house, your any thing, let it be borne in 
mind, that pronouns have no definite meaning, like other words ; but theii.* 
particular signification is always determined by the noons they represent. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Julia injured her book, and soiled mine : hers is better than 
mine. My friend sacrificed his fortune to secure yours : his 
deeds deserve reward ; yours merit disgrace. Henry's labors 
are past ; thine are to come. We leave your forests of beasts 
for ours of men. My sword and yours are kin. 

Note. She understood, is nominative to soiled, in the first exam])le ; andf 
the substantive part of mine, after than, is nom. to is, understood: Rule 35. 
The verbs to secicre and to come have no nominative. The pronouns mine . 
my, yours J thine, we, your, ours, my, and yours, personate nouni^ understood 

REMARKS ON IT, 

For the want of a propei' knowledge of this little pronoun ii,, many gram- 
maria-ns have been greatly puzzled how to dispose of it, or how to account 
for its multiform, and, seemingly, contradictory characters. It is in great 
demand by writers of every description. They use it without ceremony, 
either in the nominative or objective case ; either to represent one person or 
thing, or more than one. It is applied to nouns in the masculine, feminine or 
neuter gender, and, very frequently, it represents a member of a sentence, a 
whole sentence, or a number of sentences taken in a mass. 

A little attention to its true character, will at once strip it of aU its mys- 
tery. It, formerly written Mt^ according to H. Tooke, is the past participle 
of the Moeso-Gothic verb haitan. It means the said, and, therefore, like its 
near relative that, meaning, the assumed^ originally had no respect, in its ap- 
plication, to number, person, or gender, "/j!, is a wholesome law;" i. e. the 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 1().> 

said (law) is a wholesome law ; or, that (law) is a wholesome law -the us- 
sumed (law) is a wholesome law. " It is the man ; I believe it to be them :" 
— the said (man) is the man ; that (man) is the man : I believe the said i'])er 
sons) to be them; I believe ^^(7^ persons (according to the ancient applica- 
tion of that) to be them. '' It happened on a summer's day, that many }>eopIe 
were assembled," &:c. — ]Many people were assembled : ii, that, or the said 
(fact or circumstance) happened on a summer's day. 

It, according to its accepted meaning in modern times, is not refeiTed to a 
noun understood after it, but is considered a substitute. " How is it v^nth 
y >u ?" that is, How is your state or condition V ^' It rains ; It freezes ; It is 
a hard winter ;■ ' — The rain rains ; The frost frosts or freezes ; The said ( win- 
terj is a hard wdnter. '' It is delightful to see brothers and sisters li\-ing iu 
uninteiTupted love to the end of their days." What is delightful ? To see 
brothers and sisters livijig in uninterrupted love to the end of their days. It, 
this thing, is delightfid. It, then, stands for all that part of the sentence ex- 
pressed in italics ; and the sentence w^U admit of the followmg construction ; 
*' To see brothers living in uninterrupted love to the end of their days, is 
delightful." 

OF ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. 
Adjective Pronouns, Pronominal Adjectives, 

or, more properly, wSpecifying Adjectives, are a kind 
of adjectives which point out nouns by some distinct 
specification. 

Pronouns and adjectives are totally distinct in tLeir character. 
The former stand for nouns, and never belong to them ; the 
latter belong to nouns, and never stand for them. Hence, such a 
thing as an adjective-pronGun cannot exist. Each, every, either, 
this, that, some, other, and the residue, are pure adjectives. 

Those specifying adjectives commonly called Ad- 
jective Pronouns, may be divided into three sorts ; 
the distributive, the demonstrative, and the indefinite. 
They are all known by the lists. 

I. The distributive adjectives are those that denote 
the persons or things that make up a number, each 
taken separately and singly. List : each, every, either, 
and sometimes neither ; as, " Each of his brothers is 
in a favorable situation;" "Every man must account 
for himself;" "Neither of them is industrious." 

These distributives are words which are introduced into lan- 
guage in its refined state, in order to express the nicest shades 
and colors of thought. ^^ Man must account for himself;*' 
^^ Mankind must account for themselves ;" " All 7nen must account 
for themselves;'' "-47/ 7nen, women, and children, must ac- 



106 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

count for themselves;" ''Every man must account for himself." 
Each of these assertions conveys the same fact or truth. But 
the last, instead of presenting the whole human family for the 
mind to contemplate in a mass, by the peculiar force of every, 
distributes them, and presents each separately and singly ; and 
whatever is affirmed of one individual, the mind instantaneously 
transfers to the whole human race. 

Each relates to two or more persons or things, and signifies either of th 
two, or every one of any number taken separately. 

Every relates to several persons or things, and signifies each one of them 
all taken separately. 

Either relates to two persons or things taken separately, and signifies the 
one or the other. " Either of the ihree,^\ is an improper expression. It 
should be, " any of the three." 

Neither imports not either ; that is, not one nor the other ; as, *' Neither of 
my friends was there." When an allusion is made to more than two, none 
should be used mstead oi neither ; as, ^^ None of my friends was there." 

II. The demonstrative are those which precisely 
point out the subject to which they relate. List: 
this and that, and their plurals, these and those, and 
former and latter ; as, "This is true charity; " that 
is only its image." 

There is but a slight shade of difference in the meaning and 
application of the and that. When reference is made to a par- 
ticular book, we say, " Take the book ;" but when we wish to 
be very pointed and precise, we say, "Take that book ;" or, if it 
be near by, '* Take this book.^' You perceive, then, that these 
demonstratives have all the force of the definite article, and a 
little more. 

This and these refer to the nearest persons or things, tfiat and those to the 
most distant; as, " These goods are supenor to those." This and these indi- 
cate the latter, or last mentioned ; that and those, the former, or first men- 
tioned ; as, *' Both wealth and poverty are temptations ; that tends to excite 
pride, this, discontent." 

" Some place the bliss in action, some in ease ; 
Those call it pleasure, and contentment, these^ 

They, those. As it is the office of the personal they to lepresent a noun 
previously introduced to our notice, there appears to be a slight departure 
from analogy in the following application of it : '' They who seek after wis- 
dom, are sure to find her : They that sow in tears, sometimes reap in joy." 
This usage, however, is well established, and they, in such constructions, is 
generally employed in preference to those. 

III. The indefinite are those which express their 
subjects in an indefinite or general manner. List : 
some^ other, any, one, all, such, both same, another ^ 



ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS. — 4%RSllSCr, 107 

none. Of these, one and other are declined like nouns- 
Another is declined, but wants the plural. 

The indefinite adjectives, like the indefinite article, leave the 
meaning unfixed, or, in some degree, vague. With a slight 
shade of difference in meaning, we say. Give me a paper, one 
paper, a7iy paper, so?ne paper, and so on. Though these words 
restrict the meaning of the noun, they do not fix it to a pa?*iicular 
object. We therefore call them indefinite. 

These adjectives, or adjective pronouns, frequently belong to nouns under- 
stood, ia which situation they should be parsed accordingly ; as, " You may 
take either ; He is pleased \\i\h this book, but dislikes that (book ;) All (men) 
have simied, but some (men) have repented." 

The words, one, other, and none, are used in both 
numbers ; and, when they stand for nouns, they are 
not adjectives, but indefinite pronouns ; as, '' The 
great ones of the world have their failings;" ''Some 
men increase in wealth, while others decrease;" '' None 
escape." 

The word " ones," in the preceding example, does not belong 
to a noun understood. If it did, we could supply the noun. The 
meaning is not " the great one men, nor ones men," therefore one 
is not an adjective pronoun ; but the meaning is, " The great 
men of the world," therefore ones is a pronoun of the indefinite 
kind, representing the noun men understood, and it ought to be 
parsed like a personal pronoun. The word others, in the next 
example, is a compound pronoun, equivalent to other men; and 
should be parsed like mine, thine, 8fC, See Note 4th, page 100. 

I will now parse two pronouns, and then present some exam- 
ples for vou to analyze. If, in parsing the following exercises, 
you slioulij bo at a loss for definitions and rules, please to refer to 
the compendium. But before you proceed, you may commit the 
following 
i SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 

The order of parsing an Adjective Pronoun, 
is—an adjective pronoun, and why? — distributive, 
demonstrative, or indefinite, and why ?— to what noun 
does it belong, or with what does it agree ?— Rule. 

" One man instr^Qt^ ni^ny others.'' 
One is an adjective pro*>oun, or specifying adjective, it speci- 



108 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

fically points out a noun — indefinite, it expi esses its subject in an 
indefinite or general manner, and belongs to the noun " man,'' 
according to 

Rule 19. Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed oi 
understood. 

Others is a compound pronoun, including both an adjective 
pronoun and a noun, and is equivalent to other men. Other is an 
adjective pronoun, it is used specifically to describe its noun — 
indefinite, it expresses its subject in an indefinite manner, and 
belongs to men : Rule 19. (Repeat the rule.) Men is a noun, a 
name denoting persons — common, &c. (parse it in full ;) and in 
the objective case, it is the object of the action expressed by 
the transitive verb " instructs,'^ and gov. by it : Rule 20. Active- 
transitive verbs, <^c. 

" Those books are mine,^^ 

Those is an adjective pronoun, it specifies what noun is refer- 
red to-— demonstrative, it precisely points out the subject to which 
it relates — and agrees with the noun " books" in the plural num- 
ber, according to Note 1, under Rule 19. Adjective pronouns 
must agree in number with their nouns. 

Mine is a compound personal pronoun, including both the pos- 
sessor and the thing possessed, and is equivalent to my books. 
My is a pron. a word used instead of a noun — ^personal, it stands 
for the name of the person speaking — first pei'son, it denotes the 
speaker — sing, number, it im.plies but one — and in the poss. case, 
it denotes possession, and is gov. by ^^ books," according to Rule 
12. (Repeat the rule, and decline the pronoun.) Books is a 
noun, the name of a thing — common, &c. (parse it in full ;) — 
and in the nominative case after "are," according to Rule 21. 
The verb to be admits the same case after it as before it, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Each individual fills a space in creation. Every man helps a 

little. These men rank among the great ones of the world. 

That book belongs to the tutor, this belongs to me. Some men 

labor, others labor not ; the former increase in wealth, the latter 

decrease. The boy wounded the old bird, and stole the young 

ones. None performs his duty too well. None of those pool 

wretches complain of their miserable lot. 

Note. In parsing the distributive pronominal adjectives, Note 2, undet 
Rule 19, should be applied. 

m. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 
Rela'^ive Pronouns are such as relate, in general 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 109 

to some word or phrase going before, which is called 
the antecedent. They are ivho^ which^ and that. 

The word antecedent, comes from the two Latin words, ante, 
hefore, and cedo, to go. Hence you perceive, that antecedent 
means going before ; thus, " The Jiian is happy who lives virtuously ; 
This is the lady ivho relieved my wants ; Thou who lovest wis- 
dom, &c. We 2cho speak from experience/' 6z:c. The relative 
who, in these sentences, relates to the several words, man, lady, 
thou, and we, which words, you observe, come before the relative : 
ihey are, therefore, properly called antecedents. 

The relative is not varied on account of gender, person, or 
number, like a personal pronoun. When we use a personal pro- 
noun, in speaking of a man, we say he, and of a woman, she; 
in speaking of one person or thing, we use a singular pronoun, 
of more than one, a plural, and so on ; but there is no such vari- 
ation of the relative. Who, in the first of the preceding exam- 
ples, relates to an antecedent of the mas. gend. third pers. sing. ; 
in the second, the antecedent is of the fem. gend.; in the third, 
it is of the second pers. ; and in the fourth, it is of the first pers. 
plur. num. ; and, yet, the relative is in the same form in each 
example. Hence you perceive, that the relative has no peculiar 
fonn to denote its gend. pers. and num., but it ahvays agrees 
v/ith its antecedent in sense. Thus, when I say, The man whd 
writes, who is mas. gend. and sing. ; but w^hen 1 say. The ladies 
who write, who is feminine, and plural. In order to ascertain the 
gend. pers. and num. of the relative, you must always look at its 
antecedent. 

Who, Which, and That. 

Who is applied to persons^ which to things and 
brutes ; as, ''He is a friend who is faithful in adver- 
sity ; The bird which sung so sweetly, is flown ; This 
is the tree which produces no fruit.'' 

That is often used as a relative, to prevent the too 
frequent repetition of who and which. It is applied 
both to persons and things ; as, " He that acts wisely, 
deserves praise; Modesty is a quality that highly 
adorns a woman.'' 

NOTES. 
1. Who should never be applied to aniaials. The foflowing'^ application 
of it is erroneous : — " He is like a beast of prey, who destroys \\dthout pity " 
It should be, that destroys, &c. 

10 



110 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



^ 



2. Who should not be applied to children. It is incorrect to say, Tlia 
child whom we have just seen," &c. It should be, ^' The child that we have 
just seen." 

3. Which may be applied to persons when we wish to distinguish one per- 
son of two, or a particular person among a number of others ; as, " Which 
of the two ? IVhich of them is he ?" 

4. That, in preference to tuho or which, is applied to persons when they 
are qualified by an adjective in the superlative degree, or by the pronominal 
adjective same ; as, " Charles XII., king of Sweden, was one of the greatest 
madmen that the world ever saw ; — He is the same man that we saw before/' 

5. That is employed after the interrogative who, in cases like the foUovsr- 
ing; " Who that has any sense of religion, would have argued thus ?" 

When the word ever or soever is annexed to a rela- 
tive pronoun^ the combination is called a compound 
pronoun ; as, lohoever or ivhosoever, tvhichever or which" 
soever, whatever or whatsoever. 

DECLENSION OP THE RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

SINGULAR AND PLURAL. 

Nom, who, Foss, whose, Ohj, whom. 

" whoever, " whosever, " whomever. 

" whosoever, '•' whosesoever, " whomsoever. 

Which and that are indeclinable, except that whose is some* 
times used as the possessive case of which ; as, " Is there any- 
other doctrine whose followers are punished ;" that is, the follow- 
ers of which are punished. The use of this license has obtained 
among our best writers ; but the construction is not to be recom- 
mended, for it is a departure from a plain principle of grammar, 
namely, who, whose, whom, in their applications, should be con- 
fined to rational beings. 

That may be used as a pronoun, an adjective, and a conjunc- 
tion, depending on the office which it performs in the sentence. 

That is a relative only when it can be changed to who or vShich 
without destroying the sense ; as, " They that (who) reprove us, 
may be our best friends ; From every thing that (which) you see, 
derive instruction.'^ That is a demonstrative adjective, when it 
belongs to, or points out, some particular noun, either expressed 
or implied ; as, " Return that Look ; That belongs to me ; Give 
me /to." When thai is neither a relative nor an adjective pro- 
noun, it is a conjunction ; aS; ^' Take care that every day be well 
employed." The word that^ in this last sentence, cannot be 
changed to who or which without destroying the sense, therefore 
you know it is not a relative pronoun ; neither does it point out 
any particular noun, for which reason you know it is not an ad- 
jective pronoun ; but it connects the sentence, therefore it is & 
conjunction. 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. Ill 

If you pay particular attention to this elucidation of the word 
that, you will find no difficulty in parsing it. When it is a rela- 
tive or an adjective pronoun, it may be known by the signs given ; 
and whenever these signs will not apply to it, you know it is a 
conjunction. 

Some writers are apt to make too free use of this word. I will 
give you one example of affronted that, which may serve as a 
caution. The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that 
that that that lady parsed, was not the that that that gentleman 
requested her to analyze. This sentence, though rendered inel- 
egant by a bad choice of words, is strictly grammatical. The 
first that is a noun ; the second, a conjunction ; the third, an ad- 
jective pronoun ; the fourth, a noun ; the fifth, a relative pro- 
noun ; the sixth, an adjective pronoun ; the seventh, a noun; the 
eighth, a relative pronoun ; the ninth, an adjective pronoun. The 
meaning of the sentence will be more obvious, if rendered thus ; 
The tutor said, in speaking of the word that, that that that which 
that lady parsed, was not the that which that gentleman requested 
her to analyze. 

WHAT. 

What is generally a compound relative, including 
both the antecedent and the relative, and is equiva- 
lent to that which ; as, " This is what I wanted ; '' 
that is, that which^ or, the thing which I wanted. 

WJiat is compounded of which thai. These words have been 
contracted and made to coalesce, a part of the orthography of 
both being still retained: what — ioh[ich — tjhat ; (which-that.) 
Anciently it appeared in the varying forms, tlia qua, qua tha, 
quHha, quthat,' quhat, hwat, and finally, what. 

What may be used as three kinds of a pronoun, and as an 
interjection. When it is equivalent to that which, the thing which, 
or those things which, it is a compound relative, because it includes 
both the antecedent and the relative ; as, " I will try what (that 
which) can be found in female delicacy ; What you recollect 
with most pleasure, are the virtuous actions of your past life ;'' 
that' is, those things which you recollect, &;c. 

When what is a compound relative, you must always parse it 
as two words ; that is, you must parse the antecedent part as a 
noun, and give it a case ; the relative part you may analyze like 
any other relative, giving it a case likewise. In the first of the 
preceding examples, that, the antecedent part of what, is in the 
obj. case, governed by the verb "will try;" which, the relative 



112 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

part, is in the nom. case to " can be found." " I have heard 
what (i. e. that which, or the thing which) has been alleged.'^ 

Whoever and whosoever are also compound relatives, and should 
be parsed like the compound what ; as, " Whoever takes that oath, 
is bound to enforce the laws.'^ In this sentence, whoever is equiv- 
alent to he who, or, the man who ; thus, " He who takes that oath, 
is bound," &:c. 

Who, which, and what, when used in asking questions, are 
called interrogative pronouns, or relatives of the interrogative 
kind ; as, " Who is he ? Which is the person ? What are you 
doing ? " 

Interrogative pronouns have no antecedent ; but they relate to 
the word or phrase which is the answer to the question, for their 
subsequent ; as, " Whom did you see ? The j)receptor. What 
have you done ? Nothing.'^ Antecedent and subsequent are 
opposed to each other in signification. Antecedent means prece- 
ding, or going before ; and subsequent means following, or coming 
after. What, when used as an interrogative, is never compound. 

What, which, and that, when joined to nouns, are specifying 
adjectives, or adjective pronouns, in which situation they have no 
case, but are parsed like adjective pronouns of the demonstrative 
or indefinite kind ; as, " Unto which promise our twelve tribes 
hope to come ;" ''What misery the vicious endure! Whathd^y ock 
hast thou made, foul monster, sin ! " 

What and which, when joined to nouns in asking questions, 
are denominated interrogative pronominal adjectives; as, ''What 
man is that ? Which road did he take ? " 

Wliat, whatever, and whatsoever, which, whichever, and which- 
soever, in constructions like the following, are compound pro- 
nouns, but not compound relatives ; as, ** In what character But- 
ler was admitted, is unknown ; Give him what name you choose ; 
Nature's care largely endows whatever happy man will deign to 
use her treasures ; Let him take which course, or, whichever 
course he will." These sentences may be rendered thus ; " Thai 
character, or, the character in which Butler was admitted, is un- 
known ; Give him that name, or, the name which you choose ; 
Nature's care endows that happy man who will deign, &;c. ; Let 
him take that course, or the course ivhich he will." A compound 
relative necessarily includes both an antecedent and a relative. 
Those compounds, you will notice, do not include antecedents, 
the first part of each word being the article the, or the adjective 
pronoun, that; therefore they cannot properly be denominated 
compound relatives. — With regard to the word ever annexed to 
these pronouns, it is a singular fact, that, as soon as we analyze 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING. 113 

the word to which it is subjoined, ever is entirely excluded from 
the sentence. 

What is sometimes used as an interjection ; as, " But what ! 
is thy servant a dog, that he should do this ? What ! rob us of 
our right of suffrage, and then shut us up in dungeons ! ^' 

You have now come to the most formidable obstacle, or, if 1 
may so speak, to the most rugged eminence in the path of gram- 
matical science \ but be not disheartened, for, if you can get 
safely over this, your future course will be interrupted with 
only here and there a gentle elevation. It will require close 
application, and a great deal of sober thinking, to gain a clear 
conception of the nature of the relative pronouns, particularly 
the compound relatives, which are not easily comprehended by 
the young learner. As this eighth lecture is a very important 
one, it becomes necessary for you to read it carefully four or five 
times over before you proceed to commit the following order. 
Whenever you parse, you may spread the Compendium before 
you, if you please. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 
T^6 order of parsing a Relative Pronoun, is — 
a pronoun, and why ? — relative, and why ? — gender, 
person, and number, and why ? — Rule : — case, and 
why ? — Rule. — Dechne it. 

" This is the man whom we saw." 

WJiom is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — relative, 
it relates to -^man" for its antecedent — mas. gend. third pers. 
sing. num. because the antecedent "man" is with which it agrees, 
according to 

Rule 14. Relative jpronouns agree with their antecedents in gen- 
der, versG?i, and nu?nher. Whom is in the objective case, the 
object of the action expressed by the active-transitive verb " saw," 
and governed by it, agreeably to 

Rule 16. When a nominative comes between the relative and 
the verb, the relative is governed by the following verb, or some 
other word in its own member of the sentence. 

Whom, in the objective case, is placed before the verb that 
governs it, according to Note 1, under Rule 16. (Repeat the 
Note, and d recline who.) 

" From lohat is recorded, he appears," &:c. 

What is a comp. rel. pron. including both the antecedent and 
the relative, and is equivalent to that which, or the thing which — 
Thing, the ante-cedent pai't of what^ is a noun, the name of a 

10* 



114 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

thing — com. the name of a species — neuter gender, it has no 
sex — third person, spoken of — sing, number, it implies but one — 
and in the obj. case, it is the object of the relation expressed by 
the prep. " from,^' and gov. by it : Rule 31. (Repeat the Rule, 
and every other Rule to which I refer.) Which, the relative 
part of what, is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — rela- 
tive, it relates to ^' thing " for its antecedent — neut. gender, third 
person, sing, number, because the antecedent " thing '^ is with 
which it agrees, according to Rule 14. ReL pron, &c. Which 
is in the nom. case to the verb " is recorded," agreeably to 

Rule 15. The relative is the nominative case to the verb, when 
no nominative comes between it and the verb, 

" What have you learned? Nothing." 

What is a pron. a word used, &c. — relative of the interrog- 
ative kind, because it is used in asking a question — it refers 
to the word " nothing " for its subsequent, according to 

Rule 17. When the rel, pron. is of the interrog. kind, it refers 
to the word or phrase containing the answer to the question, for its 
subsequent, tvhich subsequent must agree in case with the interroga- 
tive. What is of the neut. gend. third pers. sing, because the 
subsequent "nothing" is with which it agrees; Rule 14. ReL 
pron. agree, &c.— It is in the obj. case, the object of the action, 
of the active-transitive verb " have learned," and gov. bv it, 
agreeably to Rule 16. When a nom. &c. See Note 1, under 
the Rule. 

Note. 1. You need not apply gend. pers. and numb, to the interrogative 
when the answer to the question is not expressed. 

WHO, WHICH, WHAT. 

Truth and simplicity are twin sisters, and generally go hand 
in hand. The foregoing exposition of the "relative pronouns," 
is in accordance with the usual method of treating them ; but if 
they were unfolded according to their true character, they would 
be found to be very simple, and, doubtless, much labor and per- 
plexity, on the part of the learner, would thereby be saved. 

Of the words called " relatives," who, only, is a pronoun ; and 
this is strictly personal ; more so, indeed, if we except 7 and we, 
than any other word in our language, for it is always restricted 
to persons. It ought to be classed with the personal pronouns. 
I, thou, he, she, it, we, ye, you, and they, relate to antecedents, as 
well as loho. Which, that, and what, are always adjectives. 
They never stand for, but always belong to nouns, either ex- 
pressed or implied. They specify, like many other adjectives, 
and connect sentences. 

Who supplies the place of which or what and its personal 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. PARSING, 115 

noun. Who came ? i. e. what man, what woman, what person ;— 
which man, ivoman, or person, came ? " They heard what I said" — 
they heard that (thing) which (thing) I said. " Take what (or 
whichever) course you please;" — take that course which (course) 
you please to take. " What have you done ?" i. e. what thing, 
act, or deed have you done ? " Which thing I also did at Jeru- 
salem." " Which will you take ?" — tohich look, hat, or some- 
thing else ? *' This is the tree which (tree) produces no fruit." 
" He that (man, or which man) acts wisely, deserves praise." 

They who prefer this method of treating the " relatives," are 
at liberty to adopt it, and parse accordingly. 

EXEilCISES IN PARSING. 
The man who instructs you, labors faithfully. The boy whom 
I instruct, learns well. The lady whose house we occupy, bestows 
many charities. That modesty which highly adorns a woman, 
she possesses. He that acts wisely deserves praise. This is the 
tree which produces no fruit. I believe what he says. He 
speaks what he knows. Whatever purifies the heart, also forti- 
fies it. What doest* thou ? Nothing. What book have you ? 
A poem. Whose hat have you ? John's. Who does that work ? 
Henry. Whom seest thou ? To whom gave you the present ? 
Which pen did he take ? Whom ye ignorantly worship, him 
declare I unto you. I heard what he said. George, you may 
pursue whatever science suits your taste. Eliza, take which- 
ever pattern pleases you best. Whoever lives to see this repub- 
lic forsake her moral and literary institutions, will behold her 
liberties prostrated. Whosoever, therefore, will be a friend of 
the world, is the enemy of God. 

Note. The nominative case is frequently placed after the verb, and the 
objective case, before the verb that governs it. Whom, in every sentence 
except one, house, modesty, book, hat, pen, him, the third what and lohich, the 
relative part of the first two whats, are all in the objective case, and governed 
by the several verbs that follow^ them. See Rule 16, and Note 1. Tree is 
nom. after is, according to Rule 21. Thing, the antecedent part o^ whatever j 
is nom. to "fortifies;" which, the relative part, is nom. to ''purifies." No- 
thing is governed by do, and poem, by have, understood. Henry is nomixia 
tive to does, understood. Whose and John's are governed according to Rule 
12. /, thou, you, him, &c. represent nouns understood. Him, in the last sen- 
tence but five, is governed by declare, and /is nomiaative to declare. George 
and Eliza are in the nominative case independent : Rule 5. " Whatever 
science," &c. is equivalent to, that science which suits your taste ; — *' which- 
ever pattern ;" i. e. that pattern which pleases you best. Whoever is a com- 

* The second person singular of do, when used as a principal verb, is 
spelled with an e ; thus, *' What thou doest, do quickly ;" but w^hen employ- 
ed as an auxiliary, the e should be omitted ; as, " Dost thou not behold a rock 
with ks head of heath ?" 



116 ETYMOIX)GY AND SYNTAX. 



1 



pound relative ; he, the antecedent part, is nominative to " vv^ill behold." 
Take agrees w^ith you understood. Forsake is in the infinitive mood after 
" see :" Rule 25. 

REMARKS ON RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

Which sometimes relates to a member of a sentence, or to a w^hole sen- 
tence, for its antecedent : as, " We are required to fear God and keep his 
commandments, which is the whole duty of man." What is the whole duty 
of man ? '^ To fear God and keep his commandments ;" therefore, this 
phrase is the antecedent to which. 

The conjunction as, when it follows such, many, or same, is frequently de- 
nominated a relative pronoun ; as, *' I am pleased with such as have a refined 
taste ;" that is, with those who, or them who have, &c. " Let such as presume 
to advise others, look well to their own conduct ;" that is. Let those, or them 
who presume, &c. *' As many as were ordained to eternal life, believed ;" that 
is, they, those, or all who were ordained, believed.. ^* He exhibited the same 
testimonials as were adduced on a former occasion ;" that is, those testimo- 
nials which were adduced, &c. But, in examples like these, if w^e supply the 
ellipsis w^hich a critical analysis requires us to do, as will be found to be a 
conjunction ; thus, *' I am pleased with such persons, as those persons are who 
have a refined taste ; Let such persons, as those persons are who presume," &uc, 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 
From what words is the term pronoun derived ? — Do pronouns 
always avoid the repetition of nouns ? — Name the three kinds of 
pronouns. — What distinguishes the personal from the relative 
pronouns ? — How many personal pronouns are there ? — Repeat 
them. — What belong to pronouns 1 — Is gender applied to all the 
personal pronouns ? — To which of them is it applied ? — Which 
of the personal pronouns have no peculiar termination to denote 
their gender ? — How many persons have pronouns ? — Speak them 
in their different persons. — How many numbers have pronouns ? — 
How many cases ? — What are they ? — Decline all the personal 
pronouns. — When self is added to the personal pronouns, what 
are they called, and how are they used ? — When is you singular 
in sense 1 — Is it ever singular in form ?— Why are the words, my, 
thy, ?ds, her, our, your, their, called personal pronouns ? — Why 
are the words, mine, thine, his, hers, ours, yours, theirs, denominated 
compound pers. pron.? — How do you parse these compounds ? — 
What is said of others ? — Repeat the order of parsing a personal 
pronoun. — What rule do you apply in parsing a pronoun of the 
first person, and in the nom. case ? — What rule when the pro- 
noun is in the possessive case? — What Rules apply in pa"*dng 
personal pronouns of the second and third person ? — What Rules 
- in parsing the compounds, yours, ours, mine, &;c.? — What is saic" 
of the pronoun it ? 

What are adjective pronouns ? — Name the three kinds. — What 
does each relate to ? — To what does every relate ? — To what does 
^iHier relate ? — What does neither import ? — To what do this and 



PRONOUNS. FALSE SYNTAX. 117 

these refer? — Give examples. — To what do that and those refer ? — 
Give examples. — Repeat all the adjective pronouns. — When adj. 
pronouns belong to nouns understood, how are they parsed ? — 
When they stand for, or represent nouns, what are they called ? — 
Give examples, — Repeat the order of parsing an adj. pronoun. — 
What Rule do you apply in parsing the indefinite adjective pro- 
nouns ? — What Notes, in parsing the distributives and demon- 
stratives ? 

What are relative pronouns ? — Repeat them. — From what 
words is the term antecedent derived ? — What does antecedent 
mean ? — Are relatives varied on account of gender, person, or 
number ? — To what are who and which applied ? — To what is 
that applied ? — Should who ever be applied to irrational beings or 
children ? — In what instances may luhich be applied to persons ? — 
Decline the rel. pronouns. — Can which and that be declined? — 
Is that ever used as three parts of speech ? — Give examples. — 
What part of speech is the word wliat ? — Is what ever used as 
three kinds of a pronoun ? — Give examples. — What is said of 
whoever ? — What words are used as interrogative pronouns ? — 
Give examples. — When are the words, what, which, and that, 
called adj. pron.? — When are they called interrogative pronom- 
inal adjectives ? — What is said of whatever and whichever ? — Is 
what ever used as an interjection ? — Give examples. — Repeat the 
order of parsing a rel. pron. — What Rules do you apply in pars- 
ing a relative ? — What Rules in parsing a compound relative ? — 
What Rules in parsing an interrogative ? — Does the relative 
which ever relate to a sentence for its antecedent? — When does 
the conjunction as become a relative ? — Give examples. 

EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note 1, to Rule 13. When a noun or pronoun is the subject 
of a verb, it must be in the nominative case. 

Who will go ? Him and I. How does thee do ? Is thee well ? 

" Him and I ;" not proper, because the pronoun him is the subject of tlie 
verb will go understood, therefore him should be in the nominative case, he, 
Eiccording to the above Note. (Repeat the Note.) Him and /are connect- 
ed by the conjunction and, and him is in the obj. case, and / in the nom., 
therefore Rule 33d, is violated. (Repeat the Rule.) In the second and 
third examples, thee should be thou, according to the Note. The verbs, does 
and is, are of the third person, and the nom. thou is second, for which reason 
the verbs should be of the second person, dost do and art, agreeably to 
Rule 4. You may correct the other examples, four times over. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Him and me went to town yesterday. Thee must be attentive. 
Him who is careless, will not improve. They can write as well 



118 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX, 



as me. This is the man whom was expected. Her. and I de- 
serve esteem. I have made greater proficiency than him. Whom, 
of all my acquaintances, do you think was there ? Whom, foi 
the sake of his important services, had an ofiice of honor bestowed 
upon him. 

Note 2, to Rule 13. Personal pronouns being used to supply 
the place of nouns, should not be employed in the same member 
of the sentence with the noun which they represent. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
The men they are there. I saw him the king. Our cause it 
is just. Many words they darken speech. That noble general 
who had gained so many victories, he died, at last, in prison. 
Who, instead of going about doing good, they are continually 
doing evil. 

In each of the preceding examples, the personal pronoun should be omitted, 
according to Note 2. 

Note 3, to Rule 13. A personal pronoun in the objective 
case, should not be used instead of these and those. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Remove them papers from the desk. Give me them books. 
Give them men their discharge. Observe them three there. 
Which of them two persons deserves most credit ? 

In all these examples, those should be used in place of them. Tlie use of 
the personal, therriy in such constructions, presents two objectives after one 
verb or preposition. This is a solecism which may be avoided by employing 
an adjective pronoun in its stead. 






LECTURE IX. 

OF CONJUNCTIONS. 



A Conjunction is a part of speech that is chiefly 
used to connect sentences, joining two or more sim- 
ple sentences into one compound sentence : it some- 
times connects only words ; as, " Thou and he are 
happy, because you are good." 

Conjunctions are those parts of language, which, by joining 
sentences in different ways, mark the connexions and various 
dependances of human thought. They belong to language onl}/ 
in its refined state. 



CONJUNCTIONS. 119 

The term Conjunction comes from the two Latin words, con^ 
which signifies together^ and jungo, to join, A conjunction, theu, 
is a word that conjoins, or joins together something. Before you 
can fully comprehend the nature and office of this sort of words, 
it is requisite that you should know what is meant by a sentence, 
a simple sentence, and a compound sentence, for conjunctions are 
hiefly used to connect sentences. 

A Sentence is an assemblage of words forming 
complete sense. 

A Simple Sentence contains but one subject, or 
nominative, and one verb which agrees with that 
nominative ; as, " Wheat grows in the field/' 

You perceive that this sentence contains several words besides 
the nominative and the verb, and you will often see a simple sen- 
tence containing many parts of speech; but, if it has only one 
nominative and one Jinite verb, (that is, a verb not in the infini- 
tive mood,) it is a simple sentence, though it is longer than many 
compound sentences. 

A Compound Sentence is composed of two or 
more simple sentences connected together ; as, 
" Wheat grows in the field, and vien reap it.'' 

This sentence is compound, because it is formed of two simple 
sentences joined together by the word and ; which word, on ac- 
count of its connecting power, is called a conjunction. If we 
write this sentence without the conjunction, it becomes two simple 
sentences : thus, " Wheat grows in the field. Men reap it." 

The nature and importance of the conjunction, are easily illus- 
trated. After expressing one th*ought or sentiment, you know 
we frequently wish to add another, or several others, which are 
closely connected with it. We generally effect this addition by 
means of the conjunction : thus, " The Georgians cultivate rice 
a7i(Z cotton;" that is, "They cultivate rice add cotton." This 
sentence is compound, and without the use of the conjunction, it 
would be written in two separate, simple sentences : thus, " The 
Georgians cultivate rice. They cultivate cotton." The con- 
junction, though chiefly used to connect sentences, sometimes 
connects only words ; in which capacity it is nearly allied to the 
preposition ; as, " The sun and (add) the planets constitute the 
solar system." In this, which is a simple sentence, and connects 
two words. 

A few more examples will illustrate the nature and exhibit 



120 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

the use of this part of speech so clearly, as to enable you fblly 
to comprehend it. The following simple sentences and members 
of sentences, have no relation to each other until they are con- 
nected by conjunctions. He labors harder — more successfully — 
I do. That man is healthy — he is temperate. By filling up the 
vacancies in these sentences with conjunctions, you will see the 
importance of this sort of words : thus. He labors harder and 
more successfully than I do. That man is healthy because he is 
temperate. 

Conjunctions are divided into two sorts, the Cop- 
ulative and Disjunctive. 

I, The Conjunction Copulative serves to connect 
and continue a sentence by joining on a member 
which expresses an addition, a supposition, or a 
cause ; as, " Two and three are five ; I will go if 
he will accompany me ; You are happy because you 
are good." 

In the first of these examples, aiid joins on a word that ex- 
presses an addition; in the second, if connects a member that 
implies a supposition or condition ; and in the third, because con- 
nects a member that expresses a cause, 

II. The Conjunction Disjunctive serves to connect 
and continue a sentence by joining on a member 
that expresses opposition of meaning ; as, " They 
came with her, but they went away without her." 

But joins on a member of this sentence which expresses, not 
only something added, but, also, opposition of meaning. 

The principal conjunctions may be known by the following 
lists, which you may now commi ^o memory. Some words in 
these lists, are, however, frequenJ'^ used as adverbs, and some- 
times as prepositions ; but if you study well the nature of all the 
different sorts of words, you cannot be at a loss to tell the part of 
speech of any word in the language. 

PHILOSOPHICAL ^OTES. 

On scientific principles, our connectives , commonly denominated preposi- 
tions and conjmictions, are but one part of speech, the distinction between 
them being merely technical. Some conjunctions unite only words, and 
some prepositions connect sentences. They are derived from nouns and 
verbs ; and the time has been, when, perhaps, in our language, they did not 
perform the office of connectives. 

" I wish you to believe, that I would not wilfully hurt a fly." Here, in the 



CONJUNCTIONS. 131 

LISTS OF THE CONJUNCTIONS. 

Copulative. And, if, that, both, then, since, for, 
because, therefore, wherefore, provided, besides. 

Disjunctive. But, or, nor, as, than, lest, though, 
unless, either, neither, yet, notwithstanding, never- 
theless, except, whether, whereas, as well as. 

Some conjunctions are followed by corresponding conjunctions, 
so that, in the subsequent member of the sentence, the latter 
answers to the former ; as, 

1 . Though — yet or nevertheless ; as, " Though he was rich, 
yet for our sakes he became poor." 

2. Whether — or ; as, " Whether he will go, or not, I cannot 
tell.'' It is improper to say, "Whether he will go or wo." 

3. Either — or ; as, "I will either send it, or bring it myself." 

4. Neitlier — nor ; as, " Neither thou nor I can comprehend it." 

5. As — as ; as, " She is as amiable as her sister." 

6. As — so ; as, " As the stars, so shall thy seed be." 

7. So — as ; as, " To see thy glory, so as I have seen thee in 
the sanctuary." 

8. So — that ; as, " He became so vain, that every one disliked 
him." 

NOTES. 

1. Some conjunctions are used to connect simple sentences only, and form 
them into compound sentences ; such as, further, again, besides, &c. Others 
are employed to connect simple members only, so as to make them compound 
members ; such as, than, lest, unless, that, so that, if, though, yet, because, 
as well as, &c. But, and, therefore, or, nor, for, &c., connect either whole 
sentences, or simple members. 

2. Relative pronouns, as well as conjunctions, serve to connect sentences ; 
as, *^ Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord, and keepeth his command- 
ments." 

opinion of H. Tooke, our modem conjunction thatj is merely a demonstrative 
adjective, in a disguised form ; and he attempts to prove it by the following 
resolution : " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe thai 
[assertion.'''''] Now, if we admit, that that is an adjective in the latter con 
struction, it does not necessarily follow, that it is the same part of speech, nor 
that its associated meaning is precisely the same, in the former construction. 
Instead of expressing our ideas in two detached sentences, by the former 
phraseology we have a quicker and closer transition of thought, and both 
the mode of employing that, and its inferential meaning, are changed. More- 
over, if we examine the meaning of each of these constructions, taken as ^ 
whole, we shall find, that they do not both convey the same ideas. By the 
latter, I assert, positively, that " I would not vsdlfully hurt a fly ;" whereas, 
by the former, I merely wish you to believe that " I would not wilfully hurt 
a fly ;" but I do not affirm that as a fact. 

That being the past part, of thean, to get, take, assume, by rendering it ai 

11 



122 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

You will now please to turn back and read this lecture four or 
five times over ; and then, after committing the following order, 
you may parse the subsequent exercises. 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing a Conjunction, is — a con- 
junction, and why ? — copulative or disjunctive, and 
why ? — ^what does it connect ? 

" Wisdom and virtue form the good man's character." 

And is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect 
sentences ; but in this example it connects only words — copula- 
tive, it serves to connect and continue the sentence by joining 
on a member which expresses an addition — it connects the words 
" wisdom and virtue." 

Wisdom is a noun, the name of a thing — (You may parse it in 
full.) — Wisdom is one of the nominatives to the verb " form." 

Virtue is a noun, the name, 6z;c. — (Parse it in full :) — and in 
the nom. case to the verb *' form," and connected to the noun 
" wisdom " by and, according to 

Rule 33. Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the same 
^ase. 

Form is a verb, a word which signifies to do, &c.— of the third 
person, plural, because its two nominatives, " wisdom and virtue," 
are connected by a copulative conjunction, agreeably to 

Rule 8. Two or more nouns in the singular mimher, joined hy 
copulative conjunctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agree- 
ing with them in the plural. 

" Wisdom or folly governs us." 

Or is a conjunction, a word that is chiefly used to connect sen- 
tences : it sometimes connects words — disjunctive, it serves not 
only to connect and continue the sentence, but also to join on a 
member which expresses opposition of meaning — it connects the 
nouns " wisdom and folly." 

a participle^ instead of an adjective, we should come nearer to its primitive 
character. Thus, " I would not wilfully hurt a fly. I wish you to believe 
the assumed [fact or statement ;"] or, the fact assumed or takeny 

Jf, (formerly written gif, give, g'^^j) as previously stated, is the imperative 
of the Anglo-Saxon verb gifan, to give. In imitation of Home Tooke, some 
of our modem philosophical writei^s are inclined to teach pupils to render it 
as a verb. Thus, " I will go, if he wdll accompany me f ' — '* He vdU accom- 
pany me. Grant — give that [fact] I will go." For the purpose of ascertain- 
ing the primitive meaning of this word, I have no objection to such a reso- 
lution ; but, by it, do we get the exact meaning and force of if as it is ap- 
Jjlied in our modern, refined state of the language ? I trow not. But, admit- 
.tinsf we do, does this prove that such a mode of resolving sentenceA can be 



CONJUNCTIONS. PARSING. tS© 

Governs is a verb, a word that signifies, &c. — of the third per- 
son, singular number, agreeing with " wisdom or folly/' accord- 
ing to 

Rule 9. Two or more nouns singular, joined by disjunctive 
conjunctions, rrmst have verbs, nouns, and pronouns agreeing with 
them in the singular. 

If you reflect, for a few moments, on the meaning of the last 
two Rules presented, you will see, at once, their propriety and 
importance. For example ; in the sentence, " Orlando and Tho- 
mas, who study their lessons, make rapid progress, '^ you notice that 
the two singular nouns, Orlando and Thomas, are connected by 
the copulative conjunction and, therefore the verb make, which 
agrees with them, is plural, because it expresses the action of 
both its nominatives or actors. And you observe, too, that the 
pronouns who and their, and the noun lessons, are plural, agree- 
ing with the nouns Orlando and Thomas, according to Rule 
8. The verb study is plural, agreeing with who, according to 
Rule 4. 

But let us connect these two nouns by a disjunctive conjunc- 
tion, and see how the sentence will read : " Orlando or Thomas, 
who studies his lesson, makes rapid progress." Now, you per- 
ceive, that a different construction takes place, for the latter 
expression does not imply, that Orlando and Thomas, both study 
and make rapid progress ; but it asserts, that either the one or the 
other studies, and makes rapid progress. Hence the verb makes 
is singular, because it expresses the action of the one or the other 
of its nominatives. And you observe, too, that the pronouns who 
and his, and the noun lesson^ are likewise in the singular, iigree- 
ing with Orlando or Thomas, agreeably to Rule 9. Studies is 
also singular, agreeing with who, according to Rule 4. 

advantageously adopted by learners in common schools ? I presume it can 
not be denied, that instead of teaching the learner to express himself cor- 
rectly in modern English, such a resolution is merely naaking him familiar 
with an ancient and barbarous construction which modem refinement has 
rejected. Our forefathers, I admit, who were governed by those laws of ne- 
cessity which compel all nations in the early and rude state of their language, 
to express themselves in short, detached sentences, employed if as a verb 
when they used the following circumlocution : " My son will reform. Give 
that fact. I will forgive him." But in the present, improved state of our lan- 
guage, by using t/as a conjunction, (for I maintain that it is one,) we express 
the same thought more briefly ; and our modem mode of expression has, loo, 
a decisive advantage over the ancient, not only in point of elegance, but also 
in perspicuity and force. In Scotland and the north of England, some peo 
pie still make use of gin, a contraction of given : thus, " I will pardon my 
BOD, gin he reform." But w^ho will contend, that they speak pure English ? 
But perhaps the advocates of what they call a philosophical development 
of l?uiguage, will say, that by their resolution of sentences, they merely sup- 



124 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Joseph and his brother reside in New York. The sun, moon, 
and stars, admonish us of a superior and superintending Power. 
I respect my friend, because he is upright and obliging. Henry 
and VVilliam, who obey their teacher, improve rapidly. Henry 
or William, who obeys his teacher, improves very fast. Neither 
rank nor possession makes the guilty mind happy. Wisdom, 
virtue, and meekness, form the good man's happiness and inte- 
rest : they support him in adversity, and comfort him in prospe- 
rity. Man is a little lower than the angels. The United States, as 
justly as Great Britain, can now boast of their literary institutions. 

Note. The verb form is plural, and agrees with three nouns singular, 
connected by copulative conjimctions, according to Rule 8. The verb com- 
fort agrees with they for its nominative. It is connected to supfort by the 
conjunction and, agreeably to Rule 34. Angels is nom. to are understood, 
and Great Britain is nom. to can boast miderstood, according to Rule 35. 

REMARKS ON CONJUNCTIONS AND PREPOSITIONS. 

The same word is occasionally employed, either as a conjunction, an ad- 
verb, or a preposition. ** I submitted, for it was in vain to resist ;" in this 
example, /or is a conjunction, because it connects the two members of a 
compound sentence. In the next it is a preposition, and governs victory in 
the objective case : " He contended for victory only." 

In the first of the following sentences, since is a conjunction ; in the second, 
it is a preposition, and in the third, an adverb ; " Since we must part, let us 
do it peaceably ; I have not seen him since that time ; Our friendship com- 
menced long since^ 

*' He will repent before he dies ; Stand before me ; Why did you not re- 
cam before'^ [that or this time ;] in the first of these three examples, before is 
an adverbial conjunction, because it expresses time and connects ; and in the 
feecond and third, it is a preposition. 

As the words of a sentence are often transposed, so are also its members. 
Without attending to this circumstance, the learner may sometimes be at a 
loss to perceive the connecting power of a preposition or conjunction, for 
every preposition and every conjunction connects either words or phrases, 
sentences or members of sentences. Whenever a sentence begins with a 
preposition or conjunction, its members are transposed ; as, '* In the days of 
Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet Elisha ;" '' If thou seek the 
Lord, he will be fomid of thee ; but, if thou forsake him, he will cast thee 
off for ever." 

piy an ellipsis. If, by an ellipsis, they mean such a one as is necessary to 
the grammatical construction, I cannot accede to their assumption. In teach- 
ing grammar, as well as in other things, we ought to avoid extremes : — we 
ought neither to pass superficially over an ellipsis necessary to the sense of a 
phrase, nor to put modern English to the blush, by adopting a mode of re- 
solving sentences that would entirely change the character of our language, 
and carry the learner back to the Vandalic age. 

But comes from the Saxon verb, beon-utan, to be-out. *^ All were well but 
(be-out, leave-out) the sti'anger." " Man is but a reed, floating on the current 
of time." Resolution : " Man is a reed, floating on the current of time ; but 
{be-out this fact) he is not a stable being." 

And-—aned, an'd, and, is the past part, of ananad, to add, join. A, an, ane, 



CONJUNCTIONS fg§ 

" When coldness wraps this suffering clay, 

'* Ah, whither strays the immortal mind V 
That the ^vords in, if, and when, in these examples, connect the members 
of the respective sentences to which they are attached, will obvnously appear 
if we restore these sentences to their natural order, and bring these particles 
between the members which they connect : thus, " Elisha the prophet flour- 
ished in the days of Joram, kmg of Israel ;" ** The Lord will be found of 
thee if thou seek him ; but he will cast thee off for ever if thou forsake him:** 

" Ah, whither strays the immortal mind, 

'* When coldness wraps this suffering clay V 

As an exercise on this lecture, you may now answer these 
QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

From what words is the term conjunction derived ? — What is 
a sentence ?— ;-What is a simple sentence ? — What is a compound 
sentence ? — Give examples. — In what respect do conjunctions 
and prepositions agree in their nature ? — How many sorts of con- 
junctions are there ? — Repeat the lists of conjunctions. — Repeat 
some conjunctions with their corresponding conjunctions. — Do 
relative pronouns ever connect sentences ? — Repeat the order of 
parsing a conjunction. — Do you apply any Rule in parsing a con- 
junction ? — What Rule should be applied in parsing a noun or 
pronoun connected with another? — What Rule in parsing a verb 
agreeing with two or more nouns singular, connected by a copu- 
lati\ e conjunction ?— What Rule when the nouns are connected 
by a disjunctive ? — In parsing a verb connected to another by a 
conjunction, what Rule do you apply V — Is a conjunction ever 
used as other parts of speech ? — Give examples. — What is said 
of the words for, since, and before ? — What is said of the trans- 
position of sentences ? 

or one, from the same verb, points out whatever is aned, oned, or made one. 
And also refers to the thing that \s joined to, added to, or made one with, some 
other person or thing mentioned. " Julius and Harriet will make a happy 
pair." Resolution: "Julius, YiBxriel joined, united, or aned, ^viW. make a 
happy pair ;" i. e. Harriet made one with Julius, will make a happy pair. 

For means cause. 

Because — he-cause, is a compound of the verb he, and the noun cause. It 
retains the meaning of both ; as, " I believe the maxim, /or I know it to be 
true ;" — " I believe the maxim, he-cause I know it to be ti*ue ;" i. e. the cause 
of my belief, he, or is, I know it to be true. 

Nor is a contraction of ne or. Ne is a contraction of not, and or, of other. 
Nor is, not other-wise : not in the other way or manner. 

E/se is the imperative of alesan, unless, of onlesan, and lest, the past part, 
of lesan. all sismitymg to dismiss, release, loosen, set free. " He will be 
pTinished, unless he repent ;" — " Unless, release, give 7ip, (the fact) he re]>ents, 
he will be punished." 

Though is the imperative of the Saxon verb thafgan, to allow, and yet, 
of getan, to get. Yet is simply, get; ancient ^ is our m.odem y. " Though 
he slay me, yet will I trust in him : — Grant or allow (the fact) he slay me, 
get, or retain (the opposite fact) I v/ill trust in him." 

11* 



126 ETYMOLOOY AND SYNTAX. 

QUESTIONS ON THE PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 
From what parts of speech are prepositions and conjunctions derived ? — 
What is Home Tooke's opinion of that '? — From what is each of the follow- 
ing words derived, that^ ify but, and, because, nor, else, unless, lest, though, 
and yet 1 



LECTURE X. 

OF INTERJECTIONS.— CASES OF NOUNS. 

Interjections are words which express the sud- 
den emotions of the speaker ; as, " Alas I I fear for 
life ; " " O death ! where is thy sting ? " 

Interjections are not so much the signs of thought, as of feel- 
ing. Almost any word may be used as an interjection ; but 
when so employed, it is not the representative of a distinct idea. 
A word which denotes a distinct conception of the mind, must 
necessarily belong to some other part of speech. They who wish 
to speak often, or rather, to make noises, when they have no use- 
ful information to communicate, are apt to use words very freely 
in this way ; such as the following expressions, la, la vie, my, O 
my, O dear, dear me, surprising, astonishing, and the like. 

interjections not included in the following list, are generally 
known by their taking an exclamation point after them. 
A LIST OF THE PRINCIPAL INTERJECTIONS. 

1. Of earnestness or grief ; as, O! oh! ah! alas! 

2. Contempt ; as. Pish ! tush ! 

3. Wonder; as, Heigh ! really ! strange ! 

4. Calling; as, Hem! ho! halloo! 

5. Disgust or aversion ; as. Fob! fy ! fudge! away! 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

The term Interjection is applied to those inarticulate sounds employed 
both by men and brutes, not to express distinct ideas, but emotions, pas- 
sions, or feelings. The sounds employed by human beings in groaning, 
sighing, crying, screaming, shrieking, and laughing, by the dog in barking, 
growling, and whining, by the horse in snorting and neighing, by the sheep 
in bleating, by the cat in mewing, by the dove in cooing, by the duck in 
quacking, and by the goose in hissing, we sometimes attempt to represent 
oy words ; but, as written words are the ocular representatives of articulate 
sounds, they cannot be made clearly to denote inarticulate or indistinct 
noises. Such indistinct utterances belong to natural language ; but they fall 
below the bounds of regulated speech. Hence, real interjections are not a 
part of written language. 



mTEKJEGTIONS. PARSING. 12Y 

6. Attentixm ; as, Lo! behold! hark! 

7. Requesting silence ; as, Hush ! hist ! 

8. Salutation; as, Welcome! hail! all hail! 

Note. We frequently meet with what some call on inter) extive phrase ; 
5uch as, Uifgrateful wretch ! impudence of hope ! folly in the extreme » what 
ingratitude ! away with him ! 

4 As the interjection is the least important part of speech in the 
English language, it will require but little attention. You may, 
however, make yourself well acquainted with what has been said 
respecting it, and then commit the 

SYSTEMATIC ORDER OF PARSING. 
The order of parsing an Interjection, is — aa 
interjection, and why ? 

" O virtue ! how amiable thou art ! " 
O is an inter] ection,^ a word used to express some passion or 
emotion of the speaker. 

The ten parts of speech have now been unfolded and eluci- 
dated, although some of them have not been fully explained. Be- 
fore you proceed any farther, you will please to begin again at 
the first lecture, and read over, attentively, the whole, observing 
to parse every example in the exercises systematically. You 
will then be able to parse the following exercises, which contain 
all the parts of speech. If you study faithfully six hours in a 
day, and pursue the directions given, you may become, if not a 
critical, at least, a good, practical grammarian, in six weeks ; but 
if you study only three hours \x\ a day, it will take you nearly 
Uivee months to acquire the same knowledge. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

True cheermlness makes a man happy in himself, and pro- 
motes the happiness of all around him. 

Modesty always appears graceful in youth : it doubles the lus- 
tre of every virtue which it seems to hide. 

The meaning of those words commonly called interjections, is easily shown 
by tracing them to their roots. 

Pish and pshaw are the Anglo-Saxon paec^ paeca ; and are equivalent to 
truvipery I i. e. tromperiey from tromper. 

Fy or /e is the imperative, /oe, the past tense, and/<?^ or faugh^ the past 
part, of the Saxon verb^<27z, to hate. 

Lo is the imperative of look. Halt is the imperative of healden, to hold. 
Farewell— fare-wellj is a compound of faran, to go, and the adverb well. It 
means, to go well. Welcome — well-come, signifies, it is well that you are 
come. Adieu comes from the French a Dicu, to God ; meaning, I commeDd. 
you to God. 



i28 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

He who, every morning, plans the transactions of the day, and 
follows out that plan, carries on a thread that will guide him 
through the labyrinth of the most busy life. 

The king gave me a generous reward for committing that bar- 
barous act ; but, alas ! I fear the consequence. 

E'en now, where Alpine solitudes ascend, 
I set me down a pensive hour to spend ; 
And, placed on high, above the storm's career, 
Look downward where a hundred realms appear : — 
Alas ! the joys that fortune brings. 

Are trifling, and decay ; 
And those who mind the paltry things. 
More trifling still than they. 
Note. In the second sentence of the foregoing exercises, which is gov- 
erned by the verb to hide, according to Rule 16. He is nom. to carries; 
who is nom. to plans. Follows agrees with toho understood, and is connected 
to plans hy and; Rule 34. What did the king give? A reward to me. 
Then reward is in the obj. case, gov. by gave; Rule 20. Me is gov. by to 
understood ; Note 1, Rule 32. The phrase, committi?ig thai barbarous act, 
is gov. by for; Note 2, under Rule 28. Hour is in the obj. case, gov. by 
to spend; Rule 20. Look is connected to set hy and; Rule 34. Joys is 
nom. to are. That is gov. by brings; Rule 16. Those is nom. to are 
understood. They is nom. to are understood ; Rule 35. 

CASES OF NOUNS. 

In a former lecture, I promised to give you a more extensive 
explanation of the cases of nouns ; and, as they are, in many 
situations, a little difficult to be ascertained, I will now offer some 
remarks on this subject. But before you proceed, I wish you to 
parse all the examples in the exercises just presented, observing 
to pay particular attention to the remarks in the subjoined Note. 
Those remarks will assist you much in analyzing. 

A noun is sometimes nominative to a verb placed many lines 
after the noun. You must exercise your judgment in this mat- 
ter. Look at the sentence in the preceding exercises beginning 
with, "He who, every morning,'^ &;c. and see if you can find 
the verb to which he is nominative. What does he do ? He 
carries on a thread, (fee. He, then, is nominative to the verb 
carries. What does who do ? Who plans, and who follows, &c. 
Then who is nom. to plans, and who understood, is nominative to 
follows. 

" A soul without reflection, like a pile 
" Without inhabitant, to ruin runs.'' 

In order to find the verb to which the noun soul, in this sen- 
tence, is the nominative, put the question ; What does a soul 
without reflection do ? Such a soul runs to ruin, like a pile with- 



NUM. CASE INDEPENDENT, ABSOLUTE. 129 

out inhabitant. Thus you discover, that soul is nominative to 
runs. 

When the words of a sentence are arranged according to their 
natural order, the nominative case, you recollect, is placed before 
the verb, and the objective, after it ; but when the words of a 
sentence are transposed ; that is, not arranged according to their 
natural order, it frequently happens, that the nominative comes 
after ^ and the objective, Z>e/bre the verb; especially in poetry, or 
when a question is asked : as, " Whence arises the inisery of the 
present world ? " " What good thing shall I do to inherit eternal 
lift;?^' Put these expressions in the declarative form, and the 
nominative will precede^ and the objective follow its verb : thus, 
" The misery of the present world arises whence • I shall do 
what good thing to inherit eternal life.^' 

" Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 

" Had, in her sober livery, all things clad.'^ 

" Stern rugged nurse, thy rigid lore 

" With patience many a year she bore." 
What did the evening do? The evening came on. Gray twU 
fight had clad what ? Twilight had clad all things in her sober 
livery. Evening, then, is nom. to came, and the noun things 
is in the objective case, and gov. by had clad : Rule 20. VV^hat 
did she bear? She bore thy rigid lore with patience, for, or dur- 
ing, many a year. Hence you find, that lore is in the objective 
case, and governed by hore, according to Rule 20. Year is 
gov. by during understood: Rule 32. 

A noun is frequently nominative to a verb understood, or in 
the objective, and governed by a verb understood ; as, " Lo, [there 
is^ l\\e poor Indian ! whose untutored mind." " O, the ipain [there 
isf] the bliss [there is] in dying!" "All were sunk, but the 
wakeful nightingale [was not sunk,'^'] " He thought as a sage 
{thinks,] though he felt as a man [feels.'^] " His hopes, immor. 
tal, blow them by, as dust [is Uown hy.^^] Rule 35 applies to 
these last three examples. 

In the next place I will explain several cases of nouns and 
pronouns which have not yet come under our notice. Sometimes 
a noun or pronoun may be In the nominative case when it has no 
verb to agree v/ith it. 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

Whenever a direct address is made, the person 
or thing spoken to^ is in the nominative case inde" 
pendent; as, '' James ^ I desire you to study.'' 



130 ETYMOLOGy AND SYNTAX. 

You notice that, in this expression, I address myself to JameSj 
that is, I speak to him ; and you observe, too, that there is no verb, 
either expressed or implied, to which James can be the nominative ; 
therefore you know that James is in the nom. case independent, 
according to Rule 5. Recollect, that ivhenever a noun is of the 
second person, it is in the nom. case independent ; that is, inde- 
pendent of any verb ; as, Selma, thy halls are silent ; Love and 
meekness, my lord, become a churchman, better than ambition ; 
O Jerusalem, Jerusalem, how often would I have gathered thy 
children together, even as a hen gathereth her chickens under 
her wings, but ye would not! — For a farther illustration of this 
case, see Note 2, under the 5th Rule of Syntax. 

Note. When a pronoun of the second person is in apposition with a noun 
independent, it is in the same case ; as, ** Thou traitor, I detest thee." 

OF THE NOMINATIVE CASE ABSOLUTE. 

A noun or pronoun placed before a participle, 
without any verb to agree with it, is in the nomi- 
native case absolute ; as, " The sun being risen^ we 
pursued our journey." 

Sun is here placed before the participle " being risen," and has 
no verb to agree with it ; therefore it is in the nominative case 
absolute, according to Rule 6. 

Note 1. A noun or pronoun in the nominative case independent, is al- 
ways of the second person ; but, in the case absolute, it is generally of the 
third person. 

2. The case absolute is always nominative ; the following sentence i» 
therefore incorrect ; *' Whose top shall tremble, him descending," &c. ; it 
should be, he de»scending. 

OF NOUNS IN APPOSITION. 

Two or more nouns or pronouns signifying the 
same person or thing, are put, by apposition^ in the 
same case ; as, '' Cicero^ the great orator^ philosopher^ 
and statesman of Rome, was murdered by Antony." 

Apposition, in a grammatical sense, means something added, 
or names added, in order more fully to define or illustrate the 
sense of the first name mentioned. 

You perceive that Cicero, in the preceding example, is merely 
ihe proper name of a man ; but when I give him the three addi- 
tional appellations, and call him a great orator, philosopher, and 
statesTnan, you understand what kind of a man he was ; that is. 



CASES OF NOUNS. PARSING. 181 

by giving him these three additional names, his character and 
abilities as a man are more fully made Known. And, surely, 
you cannot be at a loss to know that these four nouns must be in 
the same case, for they are all names given to the same person ; 
therefore, if Cicero was murdered, the orator was murdered, and 
the philosopher was murdered, and the statesman was murdered, 
because they all mean one and the same person. 

Nouns and pronouns in the objective case, are frequently in 
apposition ; as, He struck Charles the student. Now it is obvi- 
ous, that, when he struck Charles, he struck the student, because 
Charles was the student, and the student was Charles ; therefore 
the noun student is in the objective case, governed by " struck," 
and put by apposition with Charles, according to Rule 7. 

Please to examine this lecture very attentively. You will then 
be prepared to parse the following examples correctly and syste- 
jnatically. 

PARSING. 

" Weep on the rocks of roaring winds, O maid of Inistore." 

Maid is a noun, the name of a person— com. the name of a 
sort — fern, gender, it denotes a female^ — second pers. spoken to — 
sing. num. it implies but one — and in the nominative case inde- 
pendent, because it is addressed, and has no verb to agree with 
it, according to 

Rule 5. When an address is made, the noun or pronoun ad-- 
dressed, is put in the nominative case independent, 

^* The general being ransomed, the barbarians permitted him to 
depart." 

General is a noun, the name, &;c. (parse it in full :) — and in the 
nominative case absolute, because it is placed before the participle 
" being ransomed," and it has no verb to agree with it, agreeably to 

Rule 6. A noun or pronoun placed hefore a participle, and 
being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in the nominative 
case absolute, 

" Thou man of God, flee to the land of Judah." 

Thou is a pronoun, a word used instead of a noun — personal, 
it personates •' man " — second pers. spoken to — mas. gender, sing, 
num. because the noun "man" is for which it stands ; Rule 13. 
(Repeat the Rule.) — Thou is in the nominative case independent, 
and put by apposition with man, because it signifies the same 
thing, according tD 

Rule 7. Tico ir more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, signify- 
irig the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the same zase. 



132 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Man is in the nominative case independent according to Rule 
5. Flee agrees with thou understood. 

" Lo ! Newton, priest of Nature, shines afar, 
"Scans the wide world, and numbers every star." 

Newton is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nominative case 
to " shines :'' Rule 3. 

Priest is a noun, (parse it in full,) and in the nom. case, it is 
the actor and subject of the verb " shines,'^ and put by apposition 
with " Newton," because it signifies the same thing, agreeably 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule.) 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Turn from your evil ways, O house of Israel! Ye fields of 
light, celestial plains, ye scenes divinely fair! proclaim your 
Maker's wondrous power. O king ! live for ever. The murmur 
of thy streams, O Lora, brings back the memory of the past. 
The sound of thy woods, Garmallar, is lovely in my ear. Dost 
thou not behold, Malvina, a rock with its head of heath ? Three 
aged pines bend from its face ; green is the plain at its feet ; there 
the flower of the mountain grows, and shakes its white head in 
the breeze. 

The General being slain, the army was routed. Commerce 
having thus got into the legislative body, privilege must be done 
away. Jesus had conveyed himself away, a multitude being in 
that place. I being in great haste, he consented. The rain 
having ceased, the dark clouds rolled away. The Son of God, 
while clothed in flesh, was subject to all the frailties and incon- 
veniences of human nature, sin excepted ; (that is, sin being 
excepted.) 

In the days of Joram, king of Israel, flourished the prophet 
Elisha. Paul the apostle suffered martyrdom. Come, peace of 
mind, delightful guest! and dwell with me. Friends, Romans, 
countrymen, lend me your ears. 

Soul of the just, companion of the dead! 
Where is thy home, and whither art thou fled ? 
Till Hymen brought his love-delighted hour. 
There dwelt no joy in Eden's rosy bower : — 
The world was sad, the garden was a wild. 
And man the hermit sighed, till woman smiled. 

Note. Those verbs in italics^ in the preceding examples, are all in the 
imperative mood, and second person, agreeing with thoii, ycy or you, under^ 
stood. House of Israel is a noun of multitude. Was routed and must be 
done are passive verbs. Art fled is a neuter verb in a passive form. Clothed 
IS a perfect participle. Till is an adverbial coniunction. 



MOODS OF VERBS. IScJ 

When you shall have analyzed, systematically, every word in 
the foregoing exercises, you may answer the following 

QUESTIONS NOT ANSWERED IN PARSING. 

Repeat the list of interjections. — Repeal some interjective 
phrases. — Repeat the order of parsing an interjection. — In order 
to find the verb to which a noun is nom. what question do you 
put ? — Give examples. — Is the nominative case ever placed after 
tlie verb ? — When ? — Give examples. — Does the objective case 
ever come before the verb? — Give examples. — Is a noun ever 
nom. to a verb understood ? — Give examples. — When is a noun or 
pronoun in the nom. case independent? — Give examples. — Are 
nouns of the second person always in the nom. case independent ? — 
When a pronoun is put by apposition with a noun independent, 
in what case is it ? — When is a noun or pronoun in the nom. case 
absolute ? — Give examples. — When are nouns or nouns and pro. 
nouns put, by apposition, in the same case ? — Give examples. — 
In parsing a noun or pronoun in the nom. case independent, what 
Rule should be applied ? — In parsing the nom. case absolute, 
what Rule ? — What Rule in parsing nouns or pronouns in appo- 
sition ? — Do real interjections belong to written language ? — 
(Phil. Notes.) — From what are the following words derived, pish, 
fy'y lo, halt, farewell, welcome, adieu ! 



LECTURE SI. 

OF THE MOODS AND TENSES OF VERBS. 

You have now acquired a general, and, I may say, an exten- 
sive, knowledge of nine parts of speech ; but you know but little, 
as yet, respecting the most important one of all ; I mean the 
Verb. I will, therefore, commence this lecture by giving you 
an explanation of the Moods and Tenses of verbs. Have the 
goodness, however, first to turn back and read over Lecture II., 
and reflect well upon v.^hat is there said respec^inu the verb ; after 
which I will conduct you so smoothly through the moods and 
tenses, and the conjugation of verbs, that, instead of finding your- 
self involved in obscurities and deep intricacies, you will scarcely 
find an obstniction to impede vour progress. 

'12 



134 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

I. OF THE MOODS. 

The Mood or Mode of a verb means the manner 
in which its action, passion, or being, is represented. 

When I wish to assert a thing, positively, I use the declarative 
or indicative mode ; as, The man walks ; but sometimes the action 
or occurrence of which I wish to speak, is doubtful, and then I 
must, not declare it positively, but I must adopt another mode of 
expression; thus. If the man walk, he will refresh himself with 
the bland breezes. This second mode or manner of representing 
the action, is called the subjunctive or conditional mode. 

Again, we sometimes employ a verb when we do not wish to 
declare a thing, nor to represent the action in a doubtful or con- 
ditional manner ; but we wish to command some one to act. We 
then use the imperative or commanding mode, and say. Walk, sir. 
And when we do not wish to command a man to act, we some- 
times allude to his power or ability to act. This fourth mode of 
representing action, is called the potential mode ; as. He can 
walk; He could walk. The fifth and last mode, called the 
injinitive or unlimited mode, we employ in expressing action in an 
unlimited manner ; that is, without confining it, in respect to num- 
ber and person, to any particular agent ; as. To walk, to ride. 
Thus you perceive, that the mood, mode, or manner of represent- 
ing the action, passion, or being of a verb, must vary according 
to the different intentions of the mind. 

Were we to assign a particular name to every change in the 
mode or manner of representing action or being, the number of 
moods in our language would amount to many hundreds. But 
this principle of division and arrangement, if followed out in de- 
tail, would lead to great perplexity, without producing any ben- 
eficial result. The division of Mr. Harris, in his Hermes, is 
much more curious than instructive. He has fourteen moods ; 
his interrogative, optative, hortative, promissive, precautive, requisi- 
tive, enunciative, &c. But as far as philosophical accuracy and 
the convenience and advantage of the learner are concerned, it 
is believed that no arrangement is preferable to the following. 
I am not unaware that plausible objections may be raised against 
it ; but what arrangement cannot be objected to ? 

There are five moods of verbs, the Indicative, the 
Subjunctive, the Imperative the Potential, and the 
Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mood simply indicates or de- 



MOODS OF VERBS. 135 

dares a thing ; as, " He writes :" or it asks a ques- 
tion ; as, " Does he write ? Who wrote that ? " 

The term indicative, comes from the Latin indico, to declare, 
Hence,the legitimate province of the indicative mood, is to declare 
things, whether positively or negatively ; thus, positively, He 
came with me ; negatively, He cajjie not with me. But in order 
to avoid a multiplication of moods, we extend its meaning, and 
use the indicative mood in asking a question ; as. Who came with 
you ? 

The subjunctive mood being more analogous to the indicative 
in conjugation, than any other, it ought to be presented next in 
order. This mood, however, differs materially from the indica- 
tive in sense ; therefore you ought to make yourself well ac- 
quainted with the nature of the indicative, before you commence 
with the subjunctive. 

The Subjunctive Mood expresses action, pas- 
sion, or being, in a doubtful or conditional manner : 
or, . 

When a verb is preceded by a word that expresses 
a condition, doubt, motive, wish, or supposition, it 
is in the Subjunctive Mood ; as, " If he study ^ he 
will improve ; I will respect him, though he chide 
me ; He will not be pardoned, unless he repent ; 
Had he been there, he would- have conquered ;" (that 
is, {/ he had been there.) 

The conjunctions if, though, unless, in the preceding examples, 
express condition, doubt, &c. ; therefore, the verbs study, chide^ 
repent, and had been, are in the subjunctive mood. 

Note 1. A verb in this mood is generally attended by another verb in 
some other mood. You observe, that each of the first three of the preceding 
examples, contains a verb in the indicative mood, and the fourth, a verb in 
the potential. 

2. Whenever the conjunctions if, though, unless, except, whether, lest, or 
any others, denote contingency or doubt, the verbs that fol^^^w them are in 
the subjunctive mood ; as, " if he ride out every day, his health will proba- 
bly improve ;" that is, if he shall or should ride out hereafter. But when 
these conjunctions do not imply doubt, &c. the verbs that follow them are in 
the indicative, or some other mood ; as, " Though he rides out daily, hia 
health is no better." The conjunctive and indicative forms of this mood, are 
explained in the conjugation of the verb to love. See page 145. 

The Imperative Mood is used for commanding, 
exhorting, entreating, or permitting; as, "Depart 



1 86 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

thou ; Remember my admonitions ; Tarry awhile 
longer ; Go in peace." 

The verb depart expresses a command ; remember exhorts ; 
tarry expresses entreaty ; and go^ permission ; therefore they are 
all in the imperative mood. 

The imperative, from impero, to command, is literally that mood 
cF the verb used in commanding ; but its technical meaning in 
grammar is extended to the use of the verb in exhortincr, entreat- 
mg, and permittmg. 

A verb in the imperative mood, is always of the second person, 
though never varied in its terminations, agreeing with thou, ye, oi 
you, either expressed or implied. You may know a verb in this 
mood by the sense ; recollect, however, that the nominative is 
always second person, and frequently understood ; as, George, 
give me my hat; that is, give thou, or give you. When the 
nominative is expressed, it is generally placed after the verb ; 
as. Go thou ; Depart ye ; or between the auxiliary and the verb ; 
as, Do thou go ; Do ye depart. {Do is the auxiliary.) 

The Potential Mood implies possibihty, liberty, 
or necessity, pov/ er, will, or obligation ; as, " It may 
rain ; He may go or stay ; We must eat and drink ; 
I can ride ; He woidd ivalk ; They should learnt*' 

In the first of these examples, the auxiliary may implies possi- 
bility ; in the second it implies liberty ; that is, he is at liberty 
to go or to stay ; in the third, must denotes necessity ; can denotes 
power or ability ; would implies will or inclination ; that is, he 
had a mind to walk ; and should implies obligation. Hence you 

PHILOSOPHICAL NOTES. 

The changes in the termination of words, in all languages, have been 
formed by the coalescence of words of appropriate meaning. This subject 
was approached on page 49. It is again taken up for the purpose of show- 
mg, that the moods and tenses, as well as the number and person, of Eng- 
lish verbs, do not solely depend on inflection. 

The coalescing syllables which form the number and person of the He- 
brew verb, are still considered pronouns ; and, by those w^ho have investi- 
gated the subject, it is conceded, that the same plan has been adopted in the 
formation of the Latin and Greek verbs, as in the Hebrew. Some languages 
have carried this process to a very great extent. Ours is remarkable for the 
small number of its inflections. But they who reject the passive verb, and 
those moods and tenses wniich are formed by employing v^hat are called 
'-'■ auxiliajy verbs," because they are formed of two or yaore verbs, do not ap- 
pear to reason soundly. It is inconsistent to admit, that \v3Xk-etk, and walk- 
fit?, are tenses, because each is but one word, and to reject have walked, and 
vnll walk, as tenses, because each is r;oiiiposed of two words. Eth, as pre- 



MOODS. 137 

perceive, that the verbs, may rain, may go, must eat, must drink, 
can ride, would walk, and should learn, are in the potential mood. 

Note 1. As a verb in the indicative mood is converted into the subjunc- 
tive when it is preceded by a conjunction expressing doubt, contingency, 
supposition, &c., so a verb in the potential mood, may, in iil^e manner, be 
turned into the subjunctive ; as, ^ If 1 could deceive him, I should abhor it ; 
Though he should increase in wealth, he would not be charitable." I could 
deceive, is in the potential ; If I could deceive, is m the subjunctive mood. 

2. The potential mood, as well as the indicative, is used in asking a ques- 
tion ; as, " May I go ? Could you understand him ? Must we die ?" 

The Infinitive Mood expresses action, passion, 
or being, in a general and unlimited manner, having 
no nominative, consequently, neither person nor 
number ; as, '' To speak^ to walk.^^ 

Infinitive means unconfined, or unlwiiied. This mood is called 
the infinitive, because its verb is not confined or limited to a nom- 
inative. A verb in any other mood is limited ; that is, it must 
agree in number and person with its nominative ; but a verb in 
this mood has no nominative, therefore, it never changes its termi- 
nation, except to form the perfect tense. Now you understand 
why all verbs are called finite or limited^ excepting those in the 
infinitive mood. 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is often understood before the 
verb ; as, '•' Let me proceed ;" that is, Let me to proceed. See Rule 25. To 
is not a preposition when joined to a verb in this mood ; thus, to ride, to nile; 
but it should be parsed with the verb, and as a part of it. 

If you study this lecture attentively, you will perceive, that 
when I say, I write^ the verb is in the indicative mood ; but when 
I fsay, if I write, or, unless I write, &;c. the verb is in the sub- 
junctive mood ; write thou, or write ye or you, the imperative ; 
1 may write, I must write, I could write, S^c, the potential ; and 

viously shov.Ti, is a conti'action of doeth, or haveth, and ed, of dede, dodo, 
doedj or did; and, therefore, walk-e^^ ; i. e. ^aXk-doeth, or <fc>e^^-walk. and 
walk-gf^ ; i. e. walk-^^c^, or doed or <^^<i-walk, are, when analyzed, as strictly 
compound, as will walk, shall walk, and have walked. The only difference 
in the formation of these tenses, is, that in the two former, the associated 
verbs have been contracted and made to coalesce with the main verb, but in 
the two latter, they still maintain their ground as separate words. 

If it be said that will walk is composed of two words, each of which con- 
veys a distinct idea, and, therefore, should be ?i.nalvzed by itself, the same 
argument, with all its fcu'ce, may be applied to walk-^/^, wH]k-<^^,walk-a-i:Z, 
or did walk. The result erf all the investigations of this sulgeot, appears to 
settle down into the hackneyed truism, that the passive verhs. and the moods 
and tenses, of some languages, are formed by inflections, cr tenninations 
either prefixed or postfixed, and of other languages, by the association of 
auxiliary verbs, which have not yet been conti^acted and made to coalesce 

12* 



iS8 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

to write, the infinitive. Any other verb (except the defective) 
may be employed in the same manner. 

II. OF THE TENSES. 

Tense means time. 

Verbs have six tenses, the Present, the Imperfect, 
the Perfect, the Pluperfect, and the First and Second 
Future tenses. 

The Present Tense represents an action or 
event as taking place at the time in which it is men- 
tioned ; as, " I smile ; I see ; I am seen^'^ 

Note 1. The present tense is also used in speaking of actions continned, 
with occasional intermissions, to the present time ; as, ** He rideB out every 
morning." 

2. This tense is sometimes applied to represent the actions of persons long 
since dead ; as, " Seneca reasons and moralizes well ; An honest man is the 
noblest work of God." 

3. When the present tense is preceded by the words, wheUy before, after^ 
as soon as, &c. it is sometimes used to point out the relative time of a future 
action ; as, " When he arrives we shall hear the news." 

The Imperfect Tense denotes a past action or 
event, however distant ; or. 

The Imperfect Tense represents an action or 
event as past and finished, but without defining the 
precise time of its completion ; as, '^ I loved her for 
her modesty and virtue ; They were travelling post 
when he met them.'' 

In these examples, the verbs loved and met express past and 
finished actions, and therefore constitute a perfect tense as strictly 
as any form of the verb in our language ; but, as they do not 

as terminations. The auxiliary, w^hen contracted into a terminating syllahley 
retains its distinct and intrinsic meaning, as much as w^hen associated with 
a verb by juxtaposition : consequently, an " auxiliary verb" may form a part 
of a mood or tense, or passive verb, with as much propriety as a terminating 
syllable. They vs^ho contend for the ancient custom of keeping the auxilia- 
ries distinct, and parsing them as primary verbs, are, by the same principle, 
bound to extend their dissecting-knife to every compound word in the language^ 

Having thus attempted briefly to prove the philosophical accuracy of the 
theory w^hich recognises the tenses, moods, and passive verbs, formed by the 
aid of auxiliaries, I shall now offer one argument to show that this theory, 
and this only, will subser\^e the purposes of the practical grammarian. 

As it is not so much the province of philology to instruct in the exact 
meaning of single and separate words, as it is to teach the student to com- 
bine and employ them properly in framing sentences, and as those combinor 
tions which go by the name of compound tenses and passive verbs, are ne- 
cessary in w^ritiiig and discourse, it follows, conclusively, that that theory 



TENSES. 139 

define the precise time of the completion of these actions, their 
tense may properly be denominated an indefinite past. By de- 
fining the present participle in conjunction with the verb, we have 
an imperfect tense in the expression, were travelling. This course, 
however, would not be in accordance with the ordinary method 
of treating the participle. Hence it follows, that the terms im- 
perfect and perfect, as applied to this and the next succeeding 
tense, are not altogether significant of their true character ; but 
if you learn to apply these tenses correctly, the propriety or im- 
propriety of their names is not a consideration of very great 
moment. 

The Perfect Tense denotes past time, and also 
conveys an allusion to the present ; as, " I have fin- 
ished my letter." 

The verb have finished, in this example, signifies that the action, 
though past, was perfectly finished at a point of time immediately 
preceding, or in the course of a period which comes to the pres- 
ent. Under this view of the subject, the term perfect may be 
properly applied to this tense, for it specifies, not only the com- 
pletion of the action, but, also, alludes to the particular period of 
its accomplishment. 

The Pluperfect Tense represents a past action 
or event that transpired before some other past time 
specified ; as, " I had finished my letter before my 
brother arrived.'' 

You observe that the verb had finished, in this example, repre- 
sents one past action, and the arrival of my brother, another past 
action ; therefore had finished is in the pluperfect tense, because 

which does not explain these verbs in their combined state, cannot teach the 
student the correct use and application of the verbs of our language. By 
such an arrangement, he cannot learn when it is proper to use the phrases, 
shall have walked, might have gone, have seen, instead of, shall walk, might 
go, and saw ; because this theory has nothing to do with the combining of 
verbs. If it be alleged, that the speaker or writer's own good sense must 
guide him in combining these verbs, and, therefore, that the directions of the 
gramm.arian are unnecessary, it must be recollected, that such an argument 
would bear, equally, against every principle of grammar whatever. In short, 
the theory of the compound tenses, and of the passive verb, appears to be 
so firmly based in the genius of our language, and so practically important 
to the student, as to defy all the engines of the paralogistic speculator, and 
the philosophical quibbler, to batter it down. 

But the most plausible objection to the old theory is, that it is encumbered 
with much useless technicality and tedious prolixity, which are avoided by 
the simple process of exploding the passive verb, and reducing the number of 



140 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* 

the action took place prior to the taking place of the other past 
action specified in the same sentence. 

The First Future Tense denotes a future 
action or event ; as, " I will finish ; I shall finish 
my letter." 

The Second Future Tense represents a future 
action that will be fully accomplished, at or before 
the time of another future action or event; as, *^I 
shall have finished my letter v^hen my brother 
arrives." 

This example clearly shows you the meaning and the proper 
use of the second future tense. The verb " shall have finished" 
implies a future action that will be completely finished, at or 
before the time of the other future event denoted by the phrase, 
'^ when my brother arrives J^ 

Note. What is sometimes called the Inceptive future, is expressed thus, 
* I am going to write ;^^ '* I am about to write. ''^ Future time is also indi- 
cated by placing the infinitive present immediately after the indicative pres- 
ent of the verb to be ; thus, " I am to write ;" *' Harrison is to be, or ought 
to be, commander in chief;" *^ Harrison is to command the army." 

You may now read what is said respecting the moods and ten- 
ses several times over, and then you may learn to conjugate a 
verb. But, before you proceed to the conjugation of verbs, you 
will please to commit the following paragraph on the Auxiliary 
verbs, and, also, the signs of the moods and tenses ; and, in con- 
jugating, you must pay particular attention to the manner in 
which these signs are applied. 

OF THE AUXILIARY VERBS. 
Auxiliary or Helping Verbs are those by the 
help of which the Enghsh verbs are principally con- 

tbe moods to three, and of the tenses to two. It is certain, however, that if 
we reject the names of the perfect, pluperfect, and future tenses, the names 
of the potential and subjunctive moods, and of the passive verb, in writing 
and discourse we must still employ those verbal combinations which foi*m 
them ; and it is equally certain, that the proper mode of employing such 
combinations, is as easily taught or learned by the old theory, which names 
them, as by the new, which gives them no name. 

On philosophical principles, we might, perhaps, dispense with the future 
tenses of the verb, by analyzing each word separately ; but, as illustrated on 
page 79, the combined w^ords which form our perfect and pluperfect tenses 
have an associated meaning, which is destroyed by analyzing each word sepa- 
rately. That arrangement, therefore, which rejects these tenses, appears to 
be, not only unpkilosopkical, but inconsistent and inaccurate. 

For the satisfaction of those teachers who prefer it, and for their adop- 



SIGNS OF THE MOODS AND TENSES. 141 

jugaled. May^ can^ must^ mighty could^ would^ should^ 
and shall^ are always auxiliaries ; do^ he^ have^ and 
will^ are sometimes auxiliaries, and sometimes prin- 
cipal verbs. 

The use of the auxiliaries is shown in the following conju- 
gation. 

SIGNS OF THE MOODS. 

The Indicative Mood is known by the sense ^ or by 
its having no sign^ except in asking a question ; as, 
*' Who loves you ? " 

The conjunctions if^ though^ unless^ except^ whetJi- 
er, and lest^ are generally signs of the Subjunctive ; 
as, " If I love ; unless I love^"^^ &c. 

A verb is generally known to be in the Impera- 
tive Mood by its agreeing with tJiou^ or ye or you^ 
understood ; as, " Love virtue, mid follow her steps ;'' 
that is, love thou^ or love ye or you ; follow thou^ &c. 

May^ can^ and must^ mighty could^ would^ and 
should^ are signs of the Potential Mood ; as, " I may 
love ; I must love ; I should love," &c. 

To is the sign of the hijinitive ; as, " To love, to 
smile, to hate, to walk." . 

SIGNS OF THE TENSES. 

The first form of the verb is the sign of the pre- 
sent tense ; as, love^ smile^ hate^ walk. 

tion, too, a modernized philosophical theory of the moods and tenses is here 
presented. If it is not quite so convenient and useful as the old one, they 
need not hesitate to adopt it. It has the advantage of being new ; and, 
moreover, it sounds large, and will make the commonalty stare. Let it be 
distinctly understood, that you teach " philosophical grammar, founded on 
reason and commwi sense, ''^ and you will pass for a very learned man, and 
make all the good housewives wonder at the rapid march of intellect, and 
the vast improvements of the age. 

MOOD. 

Verbs have three moods, the indicative, (embracing what is commonly in- 
cluded under the indicative, the subjuncti've, and the potential,) the impera- 
tive, and the infinitive. — For definitions, refer to the body of the work. 

TENSE OR TIME. 

Verbs have only two tenses, the present and the past. 

A verb expressing action commenced and not completed, is in the pi'esent 
tense ; as, " Religion soars : it has gained many ^'ictories : it ^cill [to] carry 
its votai*ies to the blissful regions." 



142 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX* . 

Ed — the imperfect tense of regular verbs; as, 
ioved^ smiled^ hated^ walked. 

Have — the perfect ; as, have loved. 

Had — the pluperfect ; as, had loved. 

Shall or will — the first future ; as, shall love, or 
will love ; shall smile, will smile. 

Shall or will have — the second future ; as, shall 
have loved, or will have loved. 

Note. There are some exceptions to these signs, which you will notice 
by referring to the conjugation in the potential mood. 

Now, I hope you will so far consult your own ease and advan- 
tage, as to commit, perfectly, the signs of the moods and tenses 
before you proceed farther than to the subjunctive mood. If you 
do, the supposed Herculean task of learning to conjugate verbs, 
will be transformed into a few hours of pleasant pastime. 

The Indicative Mood has six tenses. 
The Subjunctive has also six tenses. 
The Imperative has only one tense. 
The Potential has four tenses. 
The Infinitive has two tenses. 

CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 

The Conjugation of a verb is the regular com- 
bination and arrangement of its several numbers, 
persons, moods, and tenses. 

The Conjugation of an active verb, is styled the 
active voice ; and that of a passive verb, the passive 
voice. 

When a verb expresses finished action, it is in the past tense ; as, ** This 
page (the Bible) God hung out of heaven, and retired.''^ 

A verb in the imperative and infinitive moods, is always in the presetU 
tense, high authorities to the contrary notwithstanding. The command must 
necessarily be given in time present, although its fulfilment must be futura 
John, what are you doing ? Learning my task. Why do you learn it ? 
Because my preceptor commanded me to do so. When did he command 
you ? Yesterday. -f-Not now, of course. 

That it is inconsistent with the nature of things for a command to be given 
in. future time, and that the fulfilment of the command, though future, has 
nothing to do with the tense or time of the command itself, are truths so 
plain as to put to the blush the gross absurdity of those who identify the 
time of the lulfilment with that of the command. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 143 

Verbs are called Regular when they form their 
imperfect tense of the indicative mood, and their 
perfect participle, by adding to the present tense ed^ 
or d only when the verb ends in e ; as, 

Pres. Tense. Imp. Tense. Perf. Participle. 

I favor. I favorecZ. favorerf. 

I love. I lovec^, loverf. 

A Regular Verb is conjugated in the following manner. 





To Love. — Indicative Mood. 




Present Tense. 
Singular, 

1. Pers, I love, 1. 

2. Pers. Thou lovest, 2. 

3. Pers, He, she, or it, loveth ) 3. 

or loves. ) 


Plural, 
We love. 
Ye or you love, 
They love. 


When we wish to express energy or positiveness, the auxiliary do should 
precede the verb in the present tense : thus, 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular 
, I do love, 
Thou dost love. 
He doth or does love. 


Plural, 

1. We do love, 

2. Ye or you do love, 

3. They do love. 




Singular, 

1. I loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 

3. He loved. 


Imperfect Tense. 

1. 
2. 
3. 


Plural, 
We loved. 
Ye or you loved, 
They loved. 




Or by prefixing did to the present : thus, 




1. 
2. 
3. 


Singular. 
T did love, 
Thou didst love. 
He did love. 


Plural, 

1. We did love, 

2. Ye or you did love. 

3. They did love. 



EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

You may read the book which I have printed. 
May, an irregular active verb, signifying " to have and to exercise might 
or strength," indie, mood, pres. tense, second pers. plur. agreeing with itff 
nom. you. Read, an in-egular verb active, infinitive mood, pres. tense, with 
the sign to understood, refendng to you as its agent. Have, an active verb, 
signifying to possess, indie, present, and having for its object, book under 
stood after " which." Printed, a perif. participle, referring to book understood. 
Johnson, and Blair, and Lowth, would have been laughed at, had they 
essayed to thrust any thing like our modernized philosophical grammar down 
the throats of their cotemporaries. 

Would, an active verb, signifying " to exercise volition," in the past tense 
of the mdicative. Have, a verb, in the infinitive, to understood. Been a per- 



A 


ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. M 




Perfect Tense. ;^^J 


I. 


Singular, Plural, ^ItW 
I have loved, 1. We have loved, 


2. 


Thou hast loved, 2. Ye or you have loved, 


3. 


He hath or has loved. 3. They have loved. 


1. 


Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 
I had loved, 1. We had loved. 


2. 


Thou hadst loved, 2. Ye or you had loved. 


3. 


He had loved. 3. They had loved 




First Future Tense. 




Singular, Plural, 


1. 


I shall or will love, 1. We shall or will love, 


2. 


Thou shalt or wilt love, 2. Ye or you shall or will 


3. 


He shall or will love. love, 




3. They shall or will love. 



Second Future Tense. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall have loved, 1. We shall have loved, 

2. Thou wilt have loved, 2. Ye or you will have 

3. He will have loved. loved, 

3. They will have loved. 

Note. Tenses formed without auxiliaries, are called simple tenses; as, I 
love ; I loved ; but those formed by the help of auxiliaries, are denominated 
compound tenses ; as, I have loved ; I had lovedy &ic. 

This display of the verb shows you, in the clearest light, the 
application of the signs of the tenses, which signs ought to be 
perfectly committed to memory before you proceed any farther. 
By looking again at the conjugation, you will notice, that have, 
placed before the perfect participle of any verb, forms the perfect 
tense ; had, the pluperfect ; shall or will, the first future, and 
so on. 

Now speak each of the verbs, love, hate, walk, smile, rule, and 
conquer, in the first person of each tense in this mood, with the 
pronoun / before it ; thus, indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. 
sing. I love ; imperf. I loved ; perf. I have loved ; and so on, 
through all the tenses. If you learn thoroughly the conjugation 

feet part, of to 5e, rf tferring to Johnson, Blair, and Lowth. Laughed at, perf. 
part, of to laugh at referring to the same as been. Had, active verb, in th« 
past tense of the indicative, agreeing with its nom. thei/. Essayed, perfl 
part, referring to they. 

Call this '^ philosophical parsmg, on reasoning principles, according to the 
original laws of nature and of thought," and the pill will be swallowed, by 
pedants and their dupes, with the greatest ease imaginable 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 145 

of the verb in the indicative mood, you will find no difficulty in 
conjugating ii through those that follow, for in the conjugation 
through all the moods, there is a great similarity. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Present Tense, or elliptical future. — Conjunctive form. 
Singular. Plural 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou love, 2. If ye or you love 

3. If he love. 3. If they love. 

Look again at the conjugation in the indicative present, and 
you will observe, that the form of the verb differs from this form 
in the subjunctive. The verb in the present tense of this mood, 
does not vary its termination on account of number or person. 
This is called the conjunctive form of the verb ; but sometimes 
the verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, is conjugated in the 
same manner as it is in the indicative, with this exception, if, 
though, unless, or some other conjunction, is prefixed ; as. 

Indicative form. 
Singular. Plural. 

1. If I love, 1. If we love, 

2. If thou lovest, 2. If ye or you love, 

3. If he loves. 3. If they love. 

The following general rule will direct you when to use the 
conjunctive form of the verb, and when the indicative. When a 
verb in the subjunctive mood, present tense, has a future signifi- 
cation, or a reference to future time, the conjunctive form should 
be used ; as, " If thou prosper, thou shouldst be thankful ; ^' 
" He will maintain his principles, though he lose his estate ; '' 
that is. If thou shalt or shouldst prosper ; though he shall or should 
lose, &;c. But when a verb in the subjunctive mood, present 
tense, has no reference to future time, the indicative form ought 
to be used ; as, " Unless he means what he says, he is doubly 
faithless." By this you perceive, that when a verb in the pres- 
ent tense of the subjunctive mood, has a future signification, an 
auxiliary is always understood before it, for which reason, in this 
construction, the termination of the principal verb never varies ; 
as, " He will not become eminent, unless he exert himself; " that 
is, unless he shall exert, or should exert himself. This tense of 
the subjunctive mood ought to be called the elliptical future. 

The imperfect, the perfect, the pluperfect, and the first future 
tenses of this mood, are conjugated, in every respect, like the 
same tenses' of tho indicative, v/ith this exception ; in the sub 

13 



146 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

junctive mood, a conjunction implying doubt, &;c. is prefixed to 
the verb. 

In the second future tense of this mood, the verb is conjugated 
thus : 

Second Future Tense. 
Singular, Plural. 

1. If I shall have loved, 1. If we shall have loved, 
2- If thou shalt have loved, 2. If you shall have loved, 
3. If he shall have loved. 3. If tney shall have loved. 
Look at the same tense in the indicative mood, and you will 

readily perceive the distinction between the two conjugations. 

Imperative Mood. 
Singular. Plural. 

2. Love, or love thou, or do 2. Love, or love ye or you, or 

thou love. do ye or you love. 

Note. We cannot command, exhort, &c. either in past or future time •, 
therefore a verb in this mood is always in the present tense. 

Potential Mood. 
Present Tense. 





Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I may, can, or must love. 


1 . We may, can, or must love, 


2. 


Thou mayst, canst, or must 


2. Ye or you may, can, or 




love. 


must love. 


3. 


He may, can, or must love. 


3. They may, can, or must 
love. 




Imperfect Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


I might, could, would, or 


1. We might, could, would, or 




should love, 


should love. 


2. 


Thou mightst, couldst. 


2. Ye or you might, could, 




wouldst, or shouldst love. 


would, or should love. 


8. 


He might, could, would, or 


3. They might, could, would^ 




should love. 


or should love. 




Pei%ct Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


1. 


1 may, can, or must have 


1. We may, can, or must have 




loved. 


loved. 


2. 


Thou mayst, canst, or must 


2. Ye or you may, can, or ^^ 




have loved, \ 


must have loved, ^ 


3 


He may, can, or must 


3. They may, can, or must 




have lovea. 


have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF VERBS. 147 

Pluperfect Tense. 
Singular, Plural, 

1. I might, could, would, or 1. We might, could, would, or 

should have loved, should have loved, 

2. Thou mightst, couldst, 2. Ye or you might, could, 

wouldst, or shouldst would, or should have 

have loved, loved, 

3. He might, could, would, 3. They might, could, would, 

or should have loved. or should have loved. 

By examining carefully the conjugation of the verb through 
this mood, you will find it very easy; thus, you will notice, that 
whenever any of the auxiliaries, may^ can, or mu^t, is placed 
before a verb, that verb is in the potential mood, present tense ; 
might, could, would, or should, renders it in the potential mood, 
invperfect tense ; may, can, or mu^t have, the perfect tense ; and 
might, could, would, or should have, the pluperfect tense. 

Infinitive Mood. 
Pres. Tense. To love. Perf. Tense. To have loved. 

Participles. 
Present or imperfect. Loving. 

Perfect or passive. Loved. 

Compound, Having loved. 

Note. The perfect participle of a regular verb, corresponds exactly with 
the imperfect tense ; yet the former may, at all times, be distinguished from 
the latter, by the following rule : In composition, the imperfect tense of a 
verb always has a nominative, either expressed or implied : the perfect par- 
ticiple never has. 

For your encouragement, allow me to inform you, that when 
you shall have learned to conjugate the verb to love, you will be 
able to conjugate all the regular verbs in the English language, 
for they are all conjugated precisely in the same manner. By 
pursuing the following direction, you can, in a very short time, 
learn to conjugate any verb. Conjugate the verb love through 
all the moods and tenses, in the first person singular, with the 
pronoun I before it, and speak the Participles : thus. Indicative 
mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I love, imperf. tense, I loved; 
perf. tense, I have loved : and so on, through every mood . and 
tense. Then conjugate it in the second pers. sing, with the pro- 
noun thou before it, through all the moods and tenses ; thus. In 
die. mood, pres. tense, second pers. sing, thou lovest ; imperf 
tense, thou lovedst : and so on, through the whole. After that 
conjugate it in the third pers. sing, with he before it ; and then in 
the first pers. plural, with we before it, in like manner through 
all the moods and tenses. Although this mode of procedure may 



148 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



at first, appear to be laborious, yet, as it is necessary, I trust you 
will not hesitate to adopt it. My confidence in your perseve- 
rance, induces me to recommend any course which I know will 
tend to facilitate your progress. 

When you shall have complied with my requisition, you may 
conjugate the following verbs in the same manner ; which will 
enable you, hereafter, to tell the mood and tense of any verb 
^vithout hesitation : walk, hate, smile, rule, conquer, reduce, relate 
melt, shun, fail. 



LECTURE XII. 



OF IRREGULAR VERBS. 

Irregular verbs are those that do not form 
their imperfect tense and perfect participle by the 
addition of d or ed to the present tense ; as, 



Pres. Tense 




Imperf, 


Tense 


Perf. or Pass. Part, 


I write 




I wrote 




written 


I begin 




I began 




begun 


I go 




I went 




gone 


The following 


is a 


list of the irresrular verbs. 


Those marked with an R 


are sometimes conjugated regularly 






Pres. Tense. 




Imperf. 


Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Part. 


Abide 




abode 




abode 


Am 




was 




been 


Arise 




arose 




arisen 


Awake 




awoke, R 




awaked 


Beak', to brin^ forth 


bare 




bom 


Bear, to carry 




bore 




borne 


Beat 




beat 




beaten, beat 


Begin 




Degan 




begun 


Bend 




bent 




bent 


Bereave 




bereft, R. 


, 


bereft, R. 


Beseech 




besought 
bade, bid 




besought 


Bid 






bidden, bid 


Bind 




bound 




boxind 


Bite 




bit 




bitten, bit 


Bleed 




bled 




bled 


Blow 




blew 




blown 


Break 
Breed 




broke 
bred 




broken 
bred 


Bring 
Build 




brought 




brought 




built 




built 


Burst 




burst, R. 




burst, R. 


Buy 




bougjht 




bousrht 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



140 



Pres. Tense. 


Imperf, Tense, 


Perf. or Pass. Part 


Cast 


cast 


cast 


Catch 


caught, R. 
chid 


caught, R. 


Chide 


chidden, chid 


Choose 


chose 


chosen 


Cleave, to adhere 


clave, R. 


cleaved 


Cleave, to spill 


cleft or clove 


cleft, cloven 


Cling 


clung 


clung 


Clothe 


clothed 


clad, R. 


Come 


came 


come 


Cost 


cost 


cost 


Crow 


crew, R. 


crowed 


Creep 


crept 


crept 


Cut 


cut 


cut 


Dare, to venture 


durst 


dared 


Dare, to challenge 


Regular 




Deal 


dealt, R. 


dealt, R. 


Dig 


du2f, R. 


dug, R. 


Do 


did^ 


done 


Draw 


drew 


drawn 


Drive 


drove 


driven 


Drink 


drank 


dnink, drank,* 


DweU 


dwelt, R. 


dwelt, R. 


Eat 


• eat, te 


eaten 


Fall 


fell 


fallen 


Feed 


fed 


fed 


Feel 


felt 


felt 


Fi-ht 


fought 


fought 


Fiud 


found 


found 


Flee 


fled 


fled 


Fling 


flung 


flung 


Fly 


flew 


flown 


Forget 


forgot 


forgotten 


Forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


Freeze 


froze 


frozen 


Get 


got 


gott 


Gild 


gilt, R. 


gilt, R. 


Gird 


girt,R. 


girt, R. 


Give 


gave 


given, 


Go 


went ^ 


gone 


Grave 


graved 


graven, R. 


Grind 


ground 


ground 


Grow 


^ew 


grown 


Have 


lad 


had 


Hang 


hung, R 


hung, R. 


Hear 


heard 


heard 


Hew 


hewed 


hewn, R. 


Hide 


hid 


hidden hid 


Hit 


iiit 


hit 


Hold 


held 


held 


Hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


Keep 


kept 


kept 


Knjt 


knit, R. 


knit, R. 



* The men were diTUik ; i. e. inebriated. The toasts were drank. 

t Gotten is nearly obsolete^. ^ Its compound forgotten, is still in good use. 



IfO 



ETyMOLO&Y AND SYNTAX. 



Pres, Tense 

Know 

Lade 

Lay 

Lead 

Leave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie, to tie down 

Load 

Lose 

Make 

Meet 

Mow 

Pay 

Put 

Read 

Rend' 

Rid 

Rid© 

Ring 

Rise 

Rive 

Run 

Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Shake 

Shape 

Shave 

Shear 

Shed 

Shine 

Show 

Shoe 

Shoot 

Shrink 

Shred 

Shut 

Sing 

Sink 

Sit 

Slay 

Sleep 

SUde 

Slmg 

Slink 

Slit 



Imperf Tense. 


Perf. or Pass. Pari. 


knew 


known 


laded 


laden 


laid 


laid 


led 


led 


left 


left 


lent 


lent 


let 


let 


lay 


lain 


loaded 


laden, R. 


lost 


lost 


made 


made 


met 


met 


mowed 


mown, R. 


paid 


paid 


put 


put 


read 


read 


rent 


rent 


rid 


rid 


rode 


rode, ridden* 


rung, rang, 


rung 


rose 


risen 


rived 


riven 


ran 


run 


sawed 


savm, R. 


said 


said 


saw 


seen 


sought 
sold 


sought 
sold 


sent 


sent 


set 


set 


shook 


shaken 


shaped 


shaped, shapen 


shaved 


shaven, R. 


sheared 


shorn 


shed 


shed 


shone, R 


shone, R 


showed 


shown 


shod 


shod 


shot 


shot 


shnink 


shrunk 


shred 


shred 


shut 


shut 


sung, sang,t 
sunk, ftank,t 


sung 
sunk 


sat 


set 


slew 


slain 


slept 
slid 


slept 
slidden 


slung. 


slung 


slunk 


slunk 


slit, R. 


slit, R 



* Ridden is nearly obsolete. 

t Sang and sank should not be used in familiir style. 



IRREGULAR VERBS. 



151 



Pres. Tense. 


Imperf. Tense, 


Perf. or Pass. PaH. 


Smite 


smote 


smitten 


Sow 


sowed 


sown, R. 


Speak 


spoke 


spoken 


Speed 


sped 


sped 


Spend 


spent 


spent 


Spill 


spilt, R 


spilt, R. 


Spin 


spun 


spun 


Spit 


spit, spat 


spit, spitten,* 


Split 


split 


split 


Spread 


spread 


spread 


Spring 


sprung, sprang 


sprung 


Stand 


stood 


stood 


Steal 


stole 


stolen 


Stick 


stuck 


stuck 


Sting 
Stink 


stung 
stunk 


stung 
stunk 


Stride 


strode, strid 


stridden 


Strike 


struck 


struck or stricken 


String 


strung 


strung 


Strive 


strove 


striven 


Strow or sti'ew 


strowed or strewed 


( strown, strowed, 
I or strewed 


Sweat 


swet, R, 


swet, R, 


Swear 


swore 


sworn 


SweU 


swelled 


swollen, R. 


Swim 


swum, swam 


swum 


Swing 


swrmg 


swung 


Take 


took 


taken 


Teach 


taught 


taught 


Tear 


tore 


torn 


TeU 


told 


told 


Think 


thought 


thought 


Thrive 


throve, R. 


thriven 


Throw 


threw 


thrown 


Thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


Tread 


trod 


trodden 


Wax 


waxed 


waxen, R« 


Wear 


wore 


worn 


Weave 


wove 


woven 


Wet 


wet 


wet, R, 


Weep 


wept 


wept 


Win 


won 


won 


Wind 


wound 


wound 


Work 


wrought, worked 


wrought, worked 


Wring 


wi-ung 


wrung 


Write 


wrote 


written. 



In faiiiiliar writmg and discourse, the follovving, and some other verbs, are 
often improperly terminated by t instead of ed; as, "learnt, spelt, spilt, 
stopt, latcht." They should be, " learned, spelled, spilled, stopped, latched." 

You may now conjugate the following irregular verbs, in a 
manner similar to the conjugation of regular verbs : arise^ begin, 
hind^ do^ go^ grow^ run^ lend, teach^ write. Thus, to arise — Indicative 

* Spitten is nearly obsolete 



1.52 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

mood, pres. tense, first person,sing. I arise ; imperf. tense, I arose ; 
perf. tense, I have arisen, and so on, through all the moods, and 
all the tenses of each mood ; and then speak the participles : thus^ 
pres. arising, perf. arisen, comp. having arisen. In the next 
place, conjugate the same verb in the second person sing, through 
all the moods and tenses ; and then in the third person sing, and 
in the first pers. plural. After that, you may proceed in the 
same manner with the words legin^ hind, &c. 

Now read the eleventh and twelfth lectures four or five times 
over, and learn the order of parsing a verb. You will then be 
prepared to parse the following verbs in full ; and I presume, all 
the other parts of speech. Whenever you parse, you must refer 
to the Compendium for definitions and rules, if you cannot repeat 
them without. I will now parse a verb, and describe all its pro- 
perties by applying the definitions and rules according to the 
systematic order. 

'^ We couM not accomplish the business.'' 

Could accomplish is a verb, a word which signifies to do — active, 
it expresses action — transitive, the action passes over from the 
nom. "we'' to the object "business" — regular, it will form its 
imperfect tense of the indie, mood and perf. part, in e^Z-— poten- 
tial mood, it implies possibility or power — imperfect tense, it de- 
notes past time however distant — first pers. plural, because the 
nom. " we " is with which it agrees, agreeably to Rule 4. A 
verb must agree, &c. Conjugated — Indie, mood, present tense, 
first pers. sing. I accomplish ; imperfect tense, I accomplished ; 
perfect, I have accomplished ; pluperfect, I had accomplished ; and 
so on. — Speak it in the person of each tense through all the 
moods, and conjugate, in the same manner, every verb you parse. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

These exercises contain a complete variety of Moods and Tenses. 

I learn my lesson well. Charles, thou learnest thy lesson 
badly. John, do you write a good hand ? Those ladies wrote a 
beautiful letter, but they did not despatch it. Have you seen the 
gentleman to whom I gave the book ? He has gone. They had 
received the news before the messenger arrived. When will 
those persons return ? My friend shall receive his reward. He 
will have visited me three times, if he come to-morrow. 

If Eliza study diligently, she will improve. If Charles studies 
he does not improve. Unless that man shall have accomplished 
his work by midsummer, he will receive no wages. Orlando, 
obey my precepts, unless you wish to injure yourself. Rem em, - 
ber what is told you. The physician may administer tlie medi- 



AUXIIJARY VERBS. 163 

cine, but Providence only can bless it. I told him that he miirht 
go, but he would not. He might have gone lasi week. \\n<\ ■ 
conducted himself properly; (that is, if he had conductrd, \ 
Boys, prepare to recite your lessons. Young ladies, let nip ht ., 
you repeat what you have learned. Study, diligently, whaiev* i 
task may be allotted to you. To correct the spirit of discontent, 
let us consider how little we deserve. To die for one's country. 
is glorious. How can we become wise ? To seek God is wis- 
dom. What is true greatness ? Active benevolence. A good 
man is a great man. 

Note 1. Man, following great, and what, in the last two examples, are 
nom. after is : Rule 21. To seek God, and to die for one's country, are mem- 
bers of sentences, each put as the nom. case to is respectively : Rule 24. 
The verb to correct is the infinitive mood absolute: Note under Rulk 23 
May be allotted is a passive verb, agreeing with which, the relative j)art or 
whatever. That, the first part of whatever, is an adj. pronoun, agreeing witi 
task; and tank is governed by study. Hear, following let, and repeat, fdlKiw- 
ing hear, are in the infinitive mood without the sign to, according to Roli* 
25. To recite is governed by -prepare : Rule 23. Is told, is a passive verb, 
agreeing with which, the relative part of whatever ; and you, following, is 
governed by to understood : Note 1, under Rule 32. 

2. In parsing a pronoun, if the noun for which it stands is not expressed 
you must say it represents some person or thing understood. 



LECTURE XIII. 

OF THE AUXILIARY, PASSIVE, AND DEFECTIVE \\.RH> 

I. AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Before you attend to the following additional remarks on r!v 
Auxiliary Verbs, you will do well to read again what is ^h 
respecting them in Lecture XI. page 140. The short actto 
there given, and their application in conjugating verbs, iiav. 
already made them quite familiar to you ; and you have undoubt- 
edly observed, that, without their help, we cannot conjugate any 
verb in any of the tenses, except the present and imperfect of the 
indicative and subjunctive moods, and the present of the impera- 
tive and infinitive. In the formation of all the other tenses, they 
are brought into requisition. 

Most of the auxiliary verbs are defective in conjugatior} ; r'ta 
is, they are used only in some of the moods and tens(\s , r. 
when unconnected with principal verbs, they are conjugated i: 
the following manner: 

MAY. 

Pres. J Si7iir. I may, thou raayst, he may 

Tense. \ Plur. We may, ye or y-ou may, Xhey may. 



154 



ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 



Imperf. 
Tense 



Pres. 
Tense. 
Imperf 
Tense. 



Fres 
Tensa 
Imperf 
Tense. 



Pres. 

Tense. 
Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense. 
Imperf. 
Tense. 



Pres 

Tense. 

Imperf. 

Tense. 



Pres. 
Tense. 
Imperf. 
Tense. 



( Sirif^. I might, thou mightst, he might. 

\ Plur, We might, ye or you might, they might 

CAN. 

( Sing. I can, thou canst, he can. 

\ Plur, We can, ye Or you can, they can. 

( Sing I could, thou couldst, he could. 

\ Plur. We could, ye or you could, they could. 

WILL. 

( Sing. I will, thou wilt, he will. 

\ Plur, We will, ye or you will, they will. 

( Sing. I would, thou wouldst, he would. 

\ Plur. We would, ye or you would, they would 

SHALL. 

Sing. I shall, thou shalt, he shall. 

Plur. We shall, ye or you shall, they shall 
ySing. I should, thou shouldst, he should. 
I Plur. We should, ye or you should, they should. 

TO DO. 

( Sing. I do, thou dost or doest, he doth or does 
I Plur. We do, ye or you do, they do. 

Sing. I did, thou didst, he did. 

Plur. We did, ye or you did, they did. 
Participles. Pres. doing. Perf. done, 

TO BE. 

Sing. I am, thou art, he is. 
Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. 
Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 
Plur. We were, ye or you were, they were. 
Participles. Pres. being. Perf. been. 



TO HAVE. 

SSing. I have, thou hast, he hath or has. 
Plur. We have, ye or you have, they have. 
( Sing. I had, thou hadst, he had. 
I Plur. We had, ye or you had, they had. 

Participles, Pres. having. Perf. had. 

Do, he, have, and will, are sometimes used as principal verbs, 
and when employed as such, do, he, and have, may be conjugated, 
by the help of other auxiliaries, through all the moods and tenses. 

Do. The different tenses of do, in the several moods, are thus 
formed : Indicative mood, pres. tense, first pers. sing. I do ; im- 
perfect tense, I did ; perf. I have done ; pluperfect, I had done ; 
first future, I shall or will do ; sec. fut. I shall have done. Sub- 
junctive mood, pres. tense. If I do ; imperf. if I did ; and so on. 
Imperative mood, do thou. Potential, pres. I may, can, or must 
do, &c. Infinitive, present, to do; perf. to have done. Parti- 
ciples, pres. doing ; perf. done ; compound, having done. 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 155 

Have. Have is in great demand. No verb can be conju- 
gated through all the moods and tenses without it. Have, when 
used as a principal verb, is doubled in some of the past tenses, 
and becomes an auxiliary to itself; thus, Indie, mood, pres. tense, 
first pers. sing. I have ; imperf. tense, I had ; perf. I have nad ; 
pluperf. I had had ; first fut. I shall or will have ; sec. fut. I 
shall have had. Subjunctive, present, if I have ; imperf. if I 
had ; perf. if I have had ; pluperf. if I had had ; first fut. if I 
shall or will have ; sec. fut. if I shall have had. Imper. mood, 
have thou. Potential, present, I may, can, or must have ; imperf. 
I might, could, would, or should have ; perf. I may, can, or must 
have had ; pluperf. I might, could, would, or should have had. 
Infinitive, present, to have ; perf. to have had. Participles, pres. 
having ; perf. had ; compound, having had. 

Be. In the next place I will present to you the conjugation of 
the irregular, neuter verb. Be, which is an auxiliary whenever it 
is placed before the perfect participle of another verb, but in 
every other situation, it is a principal verb. 

To Be. — Indicative Mood. 

Pres. ( Sing. I am, thou art, he, she, or it is. 

Tense. ( Plur. We are, ye or you are, they are. 

Imperf. j Sing. I was, thou wast, he was. 

Tense. { Plur. "We were, ye or you were, they were. 

Perf. j Sing. I have been, thou hast been, he hath or has been. 

Tense. ( Plur. We have been, ye or you have been, they have been. 

Plup. j Sing. I had been, thou hadst been, he had been. 

Tense. ( Plur. We had been, ye or you had been, they had been. 

First j Sing. I shall or will be, thou shalt or wilt be, he shall or will be. 

Fut. T. \ Plur. We shall or will be, you shall or will be, they shall or will be. 

Second ( Sing. I shall have been, thou wilt have been, he will have been. 
Fut. T. ( Plur. We shall have been, you will have been, they will have been. 

Subjunctive Mood. 
Pres. j Sing. If I be, if thou be, if he be. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we be, if ye or you be, if they be. 
Imperf. j Sing. If I were, if thou wert, if he were. 
Tense. ( Plur. If we were, if ye or you were, if they were. 

The neuter verb to he, and all passive verbs, have two forms 
in the imperfect tense of this mood, as well as in the present ; 
therefore, the following rule may serve to direct you in the proper 
use of each form. When the sentence implies doubt, supposi- 
tion, &c. and the neuter verb he, or the passive verb, is used with 
a reference to present or future time, and is either followed or 
preceded by another verb in the imperfect of the potential mood, 
the conjunctive form of the imperfect tense mast be employed ; 
as, " If he were here, we should rejoice together ; " " She might 



156 ETYMOLOGY AJSID SYxNTAX. 

go, were she so disposed." But when there is no reference to 
present or future time, and the verb is neither followed nor pre- 
ceded by another in the potential imperfect, the indicative form of 
the imperfect tense must be used ; as, '' If he was ill, he did not 
make it known ; " " Whether he was absent or present, is a mat- 
ter of nc consequence." The general rule for using the con- 
junctive form of the verb, is presented on page 145. See, also, 
page 135. 

The perfect, pluperfect, and first future tenses of the subjimctive moud, 
are conjugated in a manner similar to the correspondent tenses of the indica- 
tive. The second future is conjugated thus : 

Second ( Sing. If I shall have been, if thou shalt have been, if he shall, &.c. 
Fut. T. \ riwr. If v^e shall have been, if you shall have been, if they, &c. 

Imperative Mood. 

Pres. < Sing. Be, or be thou, or do thou be. 

Tense. \ Plur. Be, or be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

Potential Mood. 

!Sing, I may, can, or must be, thou mayst, canst, or must be, he 
may, can, or must be. 
Plur. We may, can, or must be, ye or you may, can, or must b«, 
they may, can, or must be. 
Imperf. ( Sing. I might, could, would, or should be, thou mightst, &c. 
Tense. { Plur. We might, could, would, or should be, you might, &c. 
Perf. ( Sing. I ma^f , can, or must have been, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. \ Plur. We may, can, or must have been, you may, can, or must &« 
Pluper. ( Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been, thou, &c. 
Tense. \ Plur. We might, could, would, or should have been, you, &c. 

Infinitive PvIood. 

Pres. Tense. To be. Perf. Tense. To have been. 

Participles. 

Pres. Being. Perf. Been. Compomid, Having been. 

This verb to be, though very irregular in its conjugation, is by 
far the most important verb in our language, for it is more fre- 
quently used than any other ; many rules of syntax depend on 
constructions associated with it, and, without its aid, no passive 
verb can be conjugated. You ought, therefore, to make yourself 
perfectly familiar with all its changes, before you proceed any 
farther. 

II. PASSIVE VERBS. 

The cases of nouns are a fruitful theme for investigation and 
discussion. In the progress of these lectures, this subject has 
frequently engaged our attention ; and, now, in introducing to 
your notice the passive verb, it will, perhaps, be found both inte- 
resting and profitable to present one more view of the nominative 
case. 



PASSIVE VERBS. 157 

Every sentence, you recollect, must have one finite verb, or 
more than one, and one nominaUve, either expressed or implied, 
for, without tliem, no sentence can exist. 

The nominative is the actor or subject concerning which the 
verb makes an affirmation. There are three kinds of nomina- 
tives, active, passive, and neuter. 

The nominative to an active verb, is active, because it produces 
an action, and the nominative to a passive verb, is passive, be- 
cause it receives or endures the action expressed by tlie verb ; for, 

A Passive Verb denotes action received or en- 
dured by the person or thing which is the nomina- 
tive ; as, "The boy is heateii by his father.^' 

You perceive, that the nominative toy, in this example, is not 
represented as the actor, but as the ohject of the action expressed 
by the verb is beaten ; that is, the boy receives or endures the 
action performed by his father ; therefore boy is a passive nom- 
inative. And you observe, too, that the verb is beaten, denotes 
the action received or endured by the nominative ; therefore is 
beaten is a passive verb. 

If I say, John kicked the horse, John is an active nominative, 
because he performed or produced the action ; but if I say, John 
ivas kicked by the horse, John is a passive nominative, because 
he received or endured the action. 

The nominative to a neuter verb, is neuter, because it does not 
produce an action nor receive one ; as, John sits in the chair. 
John is here connected with the neuter verb sits, which expresses 
simply the state of being of its nommative, therefore John is a 
neuter nominative. 

I will now illustrate the active, passive, and neuter nominatives 
by a few examples. 

I. Of Active Nominatives ; as, " The boy beats tiie dog ; 
The lady sings ; The ball rolls ; The man walks." 

II. Of Passive Nominatives ; as, " The boy is beaten ; The 
lady is loved ; The ball is rolled ; The man was killed.'^ 

III. Of Neuter Nominatives ; as, " The boy remains idle ; 
The lady is beautiful ; The ball lies on the ground , The man 
lives in town.^' 

You may now proceed to the conjugation of passive verbs. 

Passive Verbs are called regular when they end 
in ed ; as, was loved ; was conquered. 

All Passive Verbs are formed by adding th€ per^ 

14 



1§8 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

feet partieiple of an active-transitive verb, to the 
neuter verb to he. 

If you place a perfect participle of an active-transitive verb 
after this neuter verb le, in any mood or tense, you will have a 
'passive verb in the same mood and tense that the verb he would 
be in if the participle were not used ; as, I am slighted ; I was 
slighted ; He will be slighted; If I be slighted; I may, can, or 
must be slighted, SfC, Hence you perceive, that when you shall 
have learned the conjugation of the verb he, you will be able to 
conjugate any passive verb in the English language. 

The regular passive verb to he loved, which is formed by add- 
ing the perfect participle loved to the neuter verb to he, is conju- 
gated in the following manner : 

To Be Loved. — Indicative Mood. 

Pres. ( Sing. I am loved, thou art loved, he is loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. We are loved, ye or you are loved, they are loved. 
Imperf. ( Sing. I was loved, thou v^ast loved, he was loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. We v^ere loved, ye or you were loved, they were loved. 
Perfect ( Sing. I have been loved, thou hast been loved, he has been loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. We have been loved, you have been loved, they have, &c. 
Pluper. ( Sing. I had been loved, thou hadst been loved, he had been, &c. 
Tense. \ Plur. We had been loved, you had been loved, they had been, &c. 
First ( Sing. I shall or will be loved, thou shalt or wilt be loved, he, &c. 
Future. \ Plur. We shall or will be loved, you shall or will be loved, they, &e. 
Second ( Sing. I shall have been loved, thou wilt have been xoved, he, &c. 
Future. \ Plur. We shall have been loved, you will have been loved, &c. 

Subjunctive Mood. 

Pres. ( Sing. If I be loved, if thou be loved, if he be loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. If we be loved, if ye or you be loved, if they be loved. 
[mperf ( Sing. If I were loved, if thou wert loved, if he were loved. 
Tense. \ Plur. If we were iQved, if you were loved, if they were loved. 
This mood has six tenses : — See conjugation of the verb to he» 
* Imperative Mood. 
Pres. ( Sing. Be thou loved, or do thou be loved. 
Tense. ( Plur. Be ye or you loved, or do ye be loved. 

Potential Mood. 

Pres. ( Sing. I may, can, or must be loved, thou mayst, canst, or must, &c 
Tense. \ Plur. We may, can, or must be loved, you may, can, or must, &c 
Imperf. ( Sing. I might, could, would, or should be loved, thou mightst, &c 
Tense. \ Plur. We might, could, would, or should be loved, ye or you, <fec 
Perfect ( Sing. I may, can, or must have been loved, thou mayst, canst, &c. 
Tense. \ Plur. We may, can, or must have been loved, you may, can, &c. 

(Sing. I might, could, would, or should have been loved, thou 
mightst, couldst, wouldst, or shouldst have been loved, &c. 
Plur We might, could, would, or should have been loved, you 
might, could, would, or should have been loved, they, &c. 



DEFECTIVE VERBS. lS9 

Infinitive Mood. 

Pres. Tense. To be loved. Perf. Tense. To have been loved. 

Participles. 

Present, Being loved. Perfect or Passive, Loved. 
Compound, Having been loved. 
Note. This conjugation of the passive verb to he loved, is called the 
-passive voice of the regular active-transitive verb to love. 

Now conjugate the following passive verbs; that is, speak 
them in the first pers. sing, and plur. of each tense, through all 
the moods, and speak the participles ; " to be loved, to be rejected, 
to be slighted, to be conquered, to be seen, to be beaten, to be 
sought, to be taken. '^ 

Note 1. When the perfect participle of an intransitive verb is joined to 
the neuter verb to be, the combination is not a passive verb, but a neuter verb 
in a passive form ; as, " He is gone ; The birds are flown ; The boy is grown ; 
My friend is arrived.^"* The following mode of construction, is, in general, ro 
be preferred ; " He has gone ; The birds tiave flown ; The boy has grown ; 
My iriend has arrived." 

2. Active and neuter verbs may be conjugated by adding their present 
participle to the auxiliary verb to he, through all its variations ; as, instead of, 
I teach, thou teachest, he teaches, &c., we may say, I am teaching, thou art 
teaching, he is teaching, &c. ; and, instead of, I taught, &c. ; I was teaching, 
&x;. This mode of conjugation expresses the continuation of an action or 
state of being ; and has, on some occasions, a peculiar propriety, and con- 
tributes to the harmony and precision of language. When the present par- 
ticiple of an active verb is joined with the neuter verb to be, the two words 
united, are, by some grammarians, denominated an active verb, either ti-an 
sitive or intransitive, as the case may be ; as, ''I am writing a letter ; He is 
walking :" and when the present participle of a neuter verb is thus employed, 
they tei-m the combination a neuter verb ; as, " I am sitting ; He is standing." 
Others, in constructions like these, parse each word separately. Either mode 
may be adopted. 

III. DEFECTIVE VERBS. 
Defective Verbs are those which are used only 
in some of the moods and tenses. 

The principal of them are these. 

Perfect or Passive Participle 
is wantinsc. 



Pres, Tense 


Imperf Tense, 


May, 




might. 




Can, 




could. 




wm, 




would. 




ShaU, 




should. 




Must, 




must. 




Ought, 




ought, 
quoth. 








Note. 

•!?- 


Must and 

. - •__ y-\ 


ought are 


not varied, 

r„iT J 



Ought and quoth are never used 
as auxiliaries. Ought is always followed by a verb in the infinitive mood, 
which verb determines its tense. Ought is in the present tense when the in- 
finitive following it is in the present ; as, " He ought to do it ;'^ and ought ia 
in the imperfect tense when followed by the perfect of the infinitive ; as^ 
^' He ought to have done it." 



IGO TYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Before you proceed to the analysis of the following examples, 
yuu may read over the last three lectures carefully and attent- 
ively ; and as soon as you become acquainted with all that has 
been presented, you will understand nearly all the principles and 
regular constructions of our language. In parsing a verb, oi 
any other part of speech, be careful to pursue the systematic 
or tier ^ and to conjugate every verb until you become familiar 
with all the moods and tenses. 

" He should have been punished before he committed that atro- 
cious deed.'^ 

Should have been punished is a verb, a word that signifies to 
do-— passive, it denotes action received or endured by the nom. — 
it is formed by adding the perfect part, punished to the neuter 
verb to he — regular, the perf. part, ends in ed — potential mood, 
it implies obligation, &c. — pluperfect tense, it denotes a past act 
which was prior to the other past time specified by " committed" — 
third pers. sing. num. because the nom. " he" is with which it 
agrees : Rule 4. The verb must agree, &c. — Conjugated, Indie, 
mood, pres. tense, he is punished ; imperf. tense, he was pun- 
ished ; perf. tense, he has been punished ; and so on. Conjugate 
it through all the moods and tenses, and speak the participles. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Columbus discovered America. America was discovered by 
Columbus. The preceptor is writing a letter. The letter is writ- 
ten by the preceptor. The work can be done. The house would 
have been built ere this, had he fulfilled his promise. If I be 
beaten by that man, he will be punished. Young man, if you 
wish to be respected, you must be more assiduous. Being ridi- 
culed and despised, he left the institution. He is reading Homer. 
They are talking. He may be respected, if he become more 
mgenuous. My worthy friend ought to be honored for his bene- 
volent deeds. This ought ye to have done. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
All the most important principles of the science, together with 
many of the rules, have now been presented and illustrated. 
But before you proceed to analyze the following exercises, you 
may turn over a few pages, and you will find ail the rules pre- 
sented in a body. Please to examine them critical!}', and parse 
the examples under each rule and note. The examples, you will 
notice, are given to illustrate the respective rules and notes under 
which they are placed ; hence, by paying particular attention to 
them, you will be enabled fully and clearly to comprehend the 
meaning and application of all the rules and notes. 



VERBS.- -rAKSUNTG. IGl 

As soon as you become familiarly acquainted with all the defi- 
nitioiis, so that you can apply them with facility, you m.ay omit 
them in parsing ; but you must always apply the rules of Syntax. 
When you parse without applying the definitions, you may pro- 
ceed in the following manner : 

" Mercy is the true badge of nobility/' 

Mercy is a noun common, of the neuter gender, third person, 
singular number, and in the nominative case to "is:" Rule 3. 
The nominative case governs the verb. 

Is is an irregular neuter verb, indicative mood, present tense, 
third person, singular number, agreeing with " mercy,'' according 
to Rule 4. The verh inust agree, &c. 

The is a definite article, belonging to " badge," in the sin- 
gular number : Rule 2. The definite article the, &c. 

True is an adjective in the positive degree, and belongs to the 
noun " badge :" Rule 18. Adjectives lelong, &;c. 

Badge is a noun com. neuter gender, third person, singular 
number, and in the nominative case after " is," and put by appo- 
sition with '^ mercy," according to Rule 21. The verb to be may 
have the same case after it as before it. 

Of is a preposition, connecting " badge" and " nobility," and 
showing the relation bet\veen them. 

Nobility is a noun of multitude, mas. and fern, gender, third 
person, sing, and in the obj. case, and governed by ^-of;" Rule 
31. Prepositions govern the objective case, 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

Learn to unlearn what you have learned amiss. 

What I forfeit for myself is a trifle ; that my indiscretions 
should reach my posterity, wounds me to the heart. 

Lady Jane Gray fell a sacrifice to the wild ambition of the 
duke of Northumberland. 

King Missipsi charged his sons to consider the senate and peo- 
ple of Rome as proprietors of the kingdom of Numidia. 

Hazael smote the children of Israel in all their coasts ; and 
from what is left on record of his actions, he plainly appears to 
nave proved, what the prophet foresaw him to be, a man of vio- 
lence, cruelty, and blood. 

Heaven hides from brutes what men, from men what spirits 
know. 

He that formed the ear, can he not hear ? 

He that hath ears to hear, let him liear. 

Note 1. Learn, in the first of the preceding examples, is a transitive verb, 
because the action passes over fi'oni the nom. yon understood, to the rest of 
the sentence for its object ; Rule -24. In the next example, that my indiscrt- 

14* 



162 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

Hons should reach my posterity, is a part of a sentence put as the nominativ 
to the verb wounds, according to the same Rule. 

2. The noun sacrifice, m the third example, is nom. after the active-intran-1 
sitive verb fell: Rule 22. The nomi proprietors, in the next sentence, is in I 
the objective case, and put by apposition with senate and people : Rule 7^^ 
or governed by consider, understood, according to Rule 35. J 

3. In the fifth example, what, followriug proved, is a compound relative.^ 
Thing; the antecedent part, is iu the nom. case after to be, understood, and ' 
put by apposition with he, according to Rule 21, and Note. Which, the 
relative part, is in the obj. case after to be expressed, and put by apposition 
with him, according to the same Rule. Man is in the obj. case, put by ap- 
position with which: Rule 7. The latter part of* the sentence may be lite- 
rally rendered thus : He plainly appears to have proved to be that base char- 
acter which the prophet foresaw him to be, viz. a man of violence, cruelty, 
and blood. The antecedent part of the first what, in the next sentence, is 
governed by hides ; and which, the relative part, is governed by know under- 
stood. The antecedent part of the second what, is governed by hides under- 
stood, and the relative part is governed by k7iow expressed. 

4. The first he, in the seventh example, is, in the opinion of some, nom. 
to can hear understood; but Mr. N. R. Smith, a distinguished and acute 
grammarian, suggests the propriety of rendering the sentence thus ; " He 
that formed the ear, formed it to hear ; can he not hear ?" The first he, in 
the last example, is redundant ; yet the construction is sometimes admissible, 
for the expression is more forcible than it would be to say, " Let him hear 
who hath ears to hear ;" and if we adopt the ingenious method of Mr. Smith, 
the sentence is grammatical, and may be rendered thus ; " He that hath 
ears, hath ears to hear ; let him hear." 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Idioms, anomalies, and intricacies, 

1. " The wall is three feet high." 

2. " His son is eight years old." 
8. " My knife is worth a shilling.'^ 

4. " She is worth him and all his connexions.** 

5. "He has been there three times.^^ 

6. " The hat cost ten dollars.'^ 

7. "The load weighs a tun,'*^ 

8. " The spar measures ninety feet.^ 

Remarks. — Anomaly is derived from the Greek, a, without, and omaleSf 
similar ; that is, without similarity. Some give its derivation thus ; anomaly, 
from the Latin, db, from, or out of, and norma, a rule, or law, means an out- 
law; a mode of expression that departs from the rules, laws, or general 
usages of the language ; a construction in language peculiar to itself. Thus, 
it is a general rule of the language, that adjectives of one syllable are com- 
pared by addiQg r, or er, and st, or est, to the positive degree ; but good, bet- 
ter, best ; bad, worse, worst, are not compared according to the general rule. 
They are, therefore, anomalies. The plural number of nouns is generally 
formed by adding s to the singular : man, men ; woman, women ; child, chil- 
dren ; penny, pence, are anomalies. The use of news, means, alms, and 
amends, in the singular, constitutes anomalies. Anomalous constructions are 
correct according to custom ; but, as they are departures from general rules, 
by them they cannot be analyzed. 

An idiom, Latui idioma, a construction peculiar to a language, may be an 



ANOMALIES. PARSING. 163 

anomaly, or it may not. An idiomatical expression which is not an anomaly, 
can be analyzed. 

Feet and years, in the lst,and2d examples, are not in the nominative after 
is, according to Rule 21, because they are not in apposition with the respec- 
tive nomis that precede the verb ; but the constructions are anomalous ; and, 
therefore, no rule can be applied to analyze them. The same ideas, how 
ever, can be conveyed by a legitimate construction which can be analyzed ; 
thus, " The height of the wall is three/ee^; " " The age of my son is eight years J*' 
An anomaly, when ascertained to be such, is easily disposed of; but some 
times it is very difficult to decide whether a constmction is anomalous or 
not. The 3d, 4th, and 5th examples, are generally considered anomalies; 
but if we supply, as we are, perhaps, warranted in doing, the associated 
words which modem refinement has dropped, they will cease to be anoma- 
lies ; thus, " My knife is of the worth of a shilling ;" '* — of the worth of him," 
&c. " He has been there /<?r three times ;" as we say, " I was unwell fot 
three days, after I an-ived ;" or, *^ I was tmwell three days." Thus it ap- 
pears, that by tracing back, for a few centuries, what the merely modem 
English scholar supposes to be an anomaly, an ellipsis will frequently be dis- 
covered, which, when supplied, desti'oys the anomaly. 

On extreme points, and peculiar and varying constructions in a living lan- 
guage, the most able philologists can never be agreed ; because many usages 
will always be unsettled and fluctuating, and will, consequently, be disposed 
of according to the caprice of the grammarian. By some, a sentence may be 
treated as an anomaly ; by others who contend for, and supply, an ellipsis, 
the same sentence may be analyzed according to the ellipsis supplied ; whilst 
others, who deny both the elliptical and anomalous character of the sentence, 
construct a rule by which to analyze it, which rule has for its foundation the 
principle contained in that sentence only. This last mode of procedure, in- 
asmuch as it requires us to make a rule for every peculiar construction in the 
language, appears to me to be the most exceptionable of the three. It 
appears to be multiplying rules beyond the bounds of utility. 

The verbs, cost, weighs, and measures, in the 6th, 7th, and 8th examples, may 
be considered as transitive. See remarks on resemble, have, own, &c., page 56. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. " And God said, ^ Let there be light/ and there was light.^' 
"Let us make man.'' "Let us bow before the Lord.^ "Let 
high-born seraphs tune the lyre.'' 

2. " Be it enacted." " Be it remembered." " Blessed he he 
that blesseth thee ; and cursed he he that curseth thee." " My 
soul, turn from them : — turn we to survey," &c. 

3. " Methinks I see the portals of eternity wide open to receive 
him." " Methought I was incarcerated beneath the mighty deep." 
" I was there just thirty years ago." 

4. " Their laws and their manners, generally speaking, were 
extremely rude." " Considering their means, they have effected 
much." 

5. "Ah me/ nor hope nor life remains." 

" Me miserable ' which way shall I fly ?" 

6. *' O happiness ! our being's end and aim ! 

Good, pleasure, ease, content ! whatever thy name. 
That something still which prompts th' eternal sigh 
For which we bear to live, or dare to die." — 



164 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

The verb let, in the idiomatic examples mider mmiber 1, has no nomina- 
tive specified, and is left applicable to a nominative of the first, second, or 
third person, and of either nmnber. Every action necessarily depends on an 
agent or moving cause ; and hence it follow^s, that the verb, in snch construe 
tions, has a nominative understood ; but as that nominative is not particularly 
pointed out, the constructions may be considered anomalous. 

Instead of sp.ying, ^^ Let it {to^ be enacted ;" or, " It is or shall be enacted;" 
*' Let him [^o] be blessed ;" or, *' He shall be blessed ;" *' Let us turn to sur- 
vey," &c. ; the verbs, he enacted, be blessed, turn, &c. according to an idiom 
of our language, or the poet's license, are used in the imperative^ agreeing 
With a nominative of the first or third person. 

The phrases, methinks and methought, are anomalies, in which the objec 
tive pronoun me, m the first person, is used in place of a nominative, and 
takes a verb after it in the third person. Him was anciently used in the 
same manner ; as, '' him thute, him thought." There was a period when 
these constructions were not anomalies in our language. Formerly, what we 
call the objective cases of our pronouns, were employed in the same manner 
as our present nominatives are. Ago is a contraction of agone, the past part, 
of to go. Before this participle was contracted to an adverb, the noun years 
preceding it, was in the nominative case absolute ; but now the construction 
amounts to an anomaly. The expressions, '' generally speaking," and '' con- 
sidering their means," under number 4, are idiomatical and anomalous, the 
eabjects to the participles not being specified. 

According to the genius of the English language, transitive verbs and pre- 
positions require the objective case of a noun or pronoun after them ; and this 
requisition is all that is meant by govermnent, when we say, that these parts 
of speech govern the objective case. See pages 52, 57, and 94. The same 
principle applies to the interjection. ^^ Interjections require the objective case 
of a pronoun of the first person after them ; but the nominative of a noun or 
pronoun of the second or third person ; as, " Ah me ! Oh thou ! O my Coven- 
try !^^ To say, then, that interjections require particular cases after them, is 
synonymous with saying, that they govern those cases ; and this oflSce of the 
interjection is in perfect accordance w4th that which it perfoiTns in the Latin 
and many other languages. In the examples mider number 5, the first me 
is in the objective after ^' ah," and the second me, after ah understood ; thus, 
*' Ah miserable me !" according to Note 2, mider Rule 5. — Happiness, under 
number 6, is nom. independent ; Rule 5, or in the nom. after O, according 
to this Note. The principle contained in the note, proves that every noun 
of the second person is in the nominative case ; for, as the pronoun of the 
second person, in such a situation, is always nominative, which is shown by 
its form, it logically follows that the noun, imder such circumstances, although 
it has no form to show its case, must necessarily be in the same case as the 
pronoun. " Good, pleasure, ease, content, that,''^ the antecedent part of 
" whatever," and which, the relative part, are nom. after art understood : 
Rule 21, and name is nom. to he understood. 

The second line may be rendered thus ; Whether thou art good, or whether 
ihou art pleasure, SfC. or he thy name that [thing] which [ever thing] it may 
be : putting he in the imperative, agreeing with name in the third person. • 
Something is nominative after art understood. 

EXAMPLES. 

1. "All were well hut the stranger, ^^ "I saw Robody but the 

stranger, ^^ ^* All had returned but he.'^ " None but the hrave 

deserve the fair.^' " The thing they can't hut purpose, they post 

pone." "This life, at best, is hd a dream." "It affords hut & 



ANOMALIES. PARSING. 165 

scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he hut touch the hills, they 
will smoke." " Man is hut a reed, floating on the current of time." 

2. " Notwithstanding his poverty, he is content." 

3. " Open your hand wide,'' " The apples boil soft.'' "The 
purest clay is that which burns white,'' " Drink deep, or taste 
not the Pierian spring." 

4. " JVhat though the swelling surge thou see?" &c. " What if 
the foot, ordain'd the dust to tread ?" &c. 

Remarks.— -According to the principle of analysis assumed by many of 
our most critical philologists, but is always a disjunctive conjimction ; and 
agreeably to the same authorities, to construe it, in any case, as a preposition, 
would lead to error. See false Syntax under Rule 35. They maintain, that 
its legitimate and undeviatisg office is, to join on a member of a sentence 
which expresses opposition of meaning, and thereby fonns an exception to, 
or talies from the universality of, the proposition contained in the preceding 
member of the sentence. That it sustains its true character as a conjimction 
in all the examples under number 1, will be shown by the following resolu- 
tion of them. — " All were well but the stranger [was not ?ceZZ."] '* I saw 
nobody but [I saw'] the stranger " " None deserve the fair but the brave 
[deserve the fair. ^^^ " They postpone the thing which [they ought to do, and 
do not,] but which [thing] they cannot avoid purposing to do." '^ This Ufa, 
at best, [is not a reality,] but it is a dream. It [affords not unbounded frui- 
tion] but it affords a scanty measure of enjoyment." " If he touch the hills, 
but exert no greater power upon them, they wall smoke ;" — '' If he exert tm 
greater power upon the hills, but [be-out this fact] if he touch them, they will 
smoke." " Man is not a stable being, but he is a reed, floating on the current 
of time." This method of analyzing sentences, however, if I mistake not, 
is too much on the plan of our pretended philosophical writers, who, in their 
rage for ancient constractions and combinations, often overlook the modem 
associated meaning and application of tliis word. It appears to me to be 
more consistent with the modern use of the v/ord, to consider it an adverb in 
constructions like the following : " If he but (only, merely) touch the hills 
they will smoke." 

Except and near, in examples like the following, are generally construed 
as prepositions: "All went except him ;^^ "She stands near them.'''' But 
many contend, that when we employ but instead of except, in such construc- 
tions, a nominative should follow : " All went but he [did not g'o."] On this 
poiat and many others, custom is variable ; but the period will doubtless ar- 
rive, when but, worth, and like, will be considered prepositions, and, in con- 
structions like the foregoing, invariably be followed by an objective case. 
This will not be the case, however, until the practice of supplying an ellipsis 
after these w^ords is entirely dropped. 

Poverty, under number 2, is governed by the preposition notwithstanding, 
Rule 31. The ad.jectives wide, soft, white, and deep, under number 3, not 
only express the quality of nouns, but also qualify verbs: Note 4, under 
Rule 18. — What, in the phrases " what though" and " what if," is an inter- 
rogative in the objective case, and governed by the verb matters understood, 
or by some other verb ; thus, " What matters it — what dost thou fear, though 
thou see the swelling surge ?" " What would you think, if the foot, which 
is ordained to tread the dust, aspired to be the head ?" 

In the following examples, the same word is used as several 
parts of speech. But by exercising judgment sufficient to com- 



166 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX 

prehend the meaning, and by supplying what is understood, you 
will be able to analyze them correctly. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
I like what you dislike. 

Every creature loves its like. 

Anger, envy, and like passions, are sinful. 

Charity, like the sun, brightens every object around it. 

Thought flies swifter than light. 

He thought as a sage, though he felt as a man. 

Hail often proves destructive to vegetation. 

I was happy to hail him as my friend. 

Hail ! beauteous stranger of the wood. 

The more I examine the work, the better I like it. 

Johnson is a better writer than Sterne. 

Calm was the day, and the scene delightful. 

We may expect a calm after a storm. 

To prevent passion is easier than to calm it. 

Damp air is unwholesome. 

Guilt often casts a damp over our sprightliest hours. 

Soft bodies damp the sound much more than hard ones. 

Much money has been expended. 

Of him to whom much is given, much will be required. 

It is much better to give than to receive. 

Still water runs deep. He labored to still the tumult. 

Those two young profligates remain still in the wrong. 

They wrong themselves as well as their friends. 

I will now present to you a few examples in poetry. Parsing 
in poetry, as it brings into requisition a higher degree of mental 
exertion than parsing in prose, will be found a more delightful 
and profitable exercise. In this kind of analysis, in order to 
come at the meaning of the author, you will find it necessary to 
transpose his language, and supply what is understood ; and then 
you will have the literal meaning in prose. 

EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Apostrophe to Hope. — Campbell. 
Eternal Hope ! when yonder spheres sublime 
l^ealed their first notes to sound the march of time, 
Thy joyous youth began : — but not to fade. — 
When all the sister planets have decayed ; 
When wrapt in flames the realms of ether glow. 
And Heaven's last thunder shakes the world below ; 
Thou, undismay'd, shalt o'er the ruins smile. 
And light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile ! 



POETRY TRANSPOSED. ^PARSING. 167 

Transposed. 
Eternal Hope ! thy joyous youth began when yonder sublime 
spheres pealed their first notes to sound the march of time : — 
but it began not to fade. — Thou, undismayed, shalt smile over 
the ruins, when all the sister planets shall have decayed ; and 
thou shalt light thy torch at Nature's funeral pile, when wrapt in 
flames, the realms of ether glow, and Heaven's last thunder 
shakes the world below. 

Address to Adversity. — Gray. 
Daughter of heaven, relentless power, 
Thou tamer of the human breast, 
Whose iron scourge, and tort'ring hour. 
The bad affright, afflict the best ! 
The gen'rous spark extinct revive ; 
Teach me to love and to forgive ; 
Exact my own defects to scan : 
What others are to feel ; and know myself a man. 
Transposed. 
Daughter of heaven, relentless power, thou tamer of the human 
breast, whose iron scourge and torturing hour affright the bad, 
and afflict the best ! Revive thou in me the generous, extinct 
spark ; and teach thou me to love others, and to forgive them ; 
and teach thou me to scan my own defects exactly, or critically : 
and teach thou me that which others are to feel ; and make thou 
me to know myself to be a man. 

Address to the Almighty. — Pope. 
What conscience dictates to be done. 
Or warns me not to do, 
* This teach me more than hell to shun. 
That more than heav'n pursue. 
Transposed. 
O God, teach thou me to pursue that {the thing) which con- 
science dictates to be done, more ardently than I pursue heaven ; 
and teach thou me to shun this {the thing) which conscience warns 
me not to do, more cautiously than I would shun hell 
Trials of Virtue. — Merrick. 
For see, ah ! see, while yet her ways 

With doubtful step I tread, 
A hostile world its terrors raise. 

Its snares delusive spread. 
O how shall I, with heart prepared. 

Those terrors learn to meet ? 
How, from the thousand snares to guard 
My unexperienced feet ? 



168 etymology and syntax. 

Transposed. 
For see th.yu, ah ! see thou a hostile world to raise its terrors, 
and see thou a hostile world to spread its delusive snares, while 
I yet tread her (virtue's) ways with doubtful steps. 

O how shall I learn to meet those terrors with a prepared 
heart ? How shall I learn to guard my unexperienced feet from 
the thousand snares of the world ? 

The Morning in Summer. — Thompson. 
Short is the doubtful empire of the night ; 
And soon, observant of approaching day. 
The meek-eyed morn appears, mother of dews, 
At first, faint gleaming in the dappled east. 
Till far o'er ether spreads the wid'ning glow, 
And from before the lustre of her face 
White break the clouds away. 

Transposed. 
The doubtful empire of the night is short ; and the meek-eyed 
morn, (which is the) mother of dews, observant of approaching 
day, soon appears, gleaming faintly, at first, in the dappled east, 
till the widening glow spreads far over ether, and the white 
clouds break away from before the lustre of her face. 
Nature Bountiful. — Akenside. 

Nature's care, to all her children just, 

With richest treasures, and an ample state, 
Endows at large whatever happy man 
Will deign to use them. 

Transposed. 
Nature's care, which is just to all her children, largely en- 
dows, with richest treasures and an ample state, that happy man 
who will deign to use them. 

Note. What, in the second example, is a comp. rel. The antecedent 
part is gov. by teach understood ; and the relative part by to feel expressed. 
To shun and to pursue, in the third example, are in the infinitive mood, gov. 
by than, according to a Note mider Rule 23. Faint aiidfrom, in the 5th 
example, are adverbs. An adverb, in poetry, is often w^ritten m the form <jf 
an adjective. Whatever, in the last sentence, is a compound pronoun, and is 
equivalent to that and who. That is an adj. pron. belonging to ** man ;" who 
in nora. to " will deign ;" and ever is excluded from the sentence in sense. 
See page 113. Parse these examples as they are transposed, and youvvill 
hixd the analysis very easy. 

ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 
Gold, not Genuine Wealth. 
Where, thy true treasure ? Gold says, " not in me ;" 
And, " not in me," the Diamond. Gold is poor. 



poetry transposed. 169 

Transposed. 
Where is thy true treasure ? Gold says, " It is not m me ;" 
and the Diamond says, " It is not in me.^^ Gold ls poor 
Source of Friendship. — Dr. Young. 
Lorenzo, pride repress ; nor hope to find 
A friend, but what has found a friend in thee. 
Transposed. 
Lorenzo, repress thou pride ; nor hope thou to find a friend, 
only in him who has already found a friend in thee. 
True Greatness. — Pope. 
Who noble ends by noble means obtains, 
Or, failing, smiles in exile or in chains. 
Like good Aurelius let him reign, or bleed 
Like Socrates, that man is great indeed. 
Transposed. 
That man is great indeed, le^ him to reign like unto good 
Aurelius, or let him to bleed like unto Socrates, who obtains noble 
ends by noble means ; or that man is great indeed, who, failing 
to obtain noble ends by noble means, smiles in exile or in chains. 
Invocation. — Pollok. 
Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom 
All things seem as they are, inspire my song ; 
My eye unscale : me what is substance teach ; 
And shadow what, while I of things to come, 
As past rehearsing, sing. Me thought and phrase 
Severely sifting out the whole idea, grant. 
Transposed. 
Eternal Spirit ! God of truth ! to whom all things seem to be 
as they really are, inspire thou my song ; and unscale thou my 
eyes : teach thou to me the thing which is substance ; and teach 
ihou to me the thing which is shadow, while I sing of things 
which are to come, as one sings of things which are past rehear- 
sing. Grant thou to me thought and phraseology which shall 
severely sift out the whole idea. 

The Voyage of Life. 
How few, favored by ev'ry element, 
With swelling sails make good the promised port, 
V/ith all their wishes freighted ! Yet ev'n these, 
Freighted w\th all their wishes, soon complain. 
Free from misfortune, not from nature free, 
They still are men ; and when is man secure ? 
As fatal time, as storm. The rush of years 
Beats down their strength ; their numberless escapefci 

15 



170 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

In ruin end : and, now, their proud success 

But plants new terrors on the victor's brow. 

What pain, to quit the world just made their own ! 

Their nests so deeply downed and built so high ! — • 

Too low they build, who build beneath the stars. 
Transposed. 
How few persons, favored by every element safely make ihe 
promised port with swelling sails, and with all their wishes freight- 
ed ! Yet even these few persons who do safely make the promised 
port with all their wishes freighted, soon complain. Though they 
are free from misfortunes, yet {though and yet^ corresponding con- 
j unctions, form only one connexion) they are not free from the 
course of nature, for they still are men ; and when is man 
secure ? Time is as fatal to him, as a storm is to the mariner. — 
The rush of years beats down their strength ; (that is, the strength 
of these few ;) and their numberless escapes end in ruin : and 
then their proud success only plants new terrors on the victor's 
brow. What pain it is to them to quit the world, just as they 
have made it to be their own world ; when their nests are built 
so high, and when they are downed so deeply ! — They who build 
beneath the stars, build too low for their ov/n safety. 
Reflections on a Scull. — Lord Byron. 

Remove yon scull from out the scattered heaps. 

Is that a temple, where a God may dwell ? 
Why, ev'n the worm at last disdains her shattered cell ! 

Look on its broken arch, its ruined wall, 

Its chambers desolate, and portals foul ; 

Yes, this was once ambition's airy hall. 

The dome of thought, the palace of the soul. 

Behold, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, 

The gay recess of wisdom and of wit, 

And passion's host, that never brooked control. 

Can all, saint, sage, or sophist ever writ, 
People this lonely tower, this tenement refit ? 

Transposed. 
Remove thou yonder scull out from the scattered heaps. Ig 
that a temple, where a God may dwell ? Why, even the worm 
at last disdains her shattered cell ! Look thou on its broken 
arch, and look thou on its ruined wtJI, and on its desolate cham- 
bers, and on its foul portals : — ^\^es, this scull was once ambition's 
airy hall ; {it loas) the dome of thought, the palace of the so)il. 
Behold thou, through each lack-lustre, eyeless hole, the gay 
recess of wisdom and of wit, and passion *s host, which never 



DEKTVATION. ITl 

brooked control, Can all the works which saints, or sages, or 
sophists have ever written, repeople this lonely tower, or can they 
refit this tenement ? 

For your future exercises in parsing, you may select pieces 
from the English Reader, or any other grammatical work. I 
have already hinted, that parsing in poetry, as it brings more 
immediately into requisition the reasoning faculties, than parsing 
in prose, will necessarily tend more rapidly to facilitate your 
progress : therefore it is advisable that your future exercises in 
this way, be chiefly confined to the analysis of poetry. Previous 
to your attempting to parse a piece of poetry, you ought always 
to transpose it, in a manner similar to the examples just presented; 
and then it can be as easily analyzed as prose. 

Before you proceed to correct the following exercises in false 
syntax, you may turn back and read over the whole thirteen 
lectures, unless you have the subject-matter already stored in 
your mind. 



LEOTUHB XIV. 
OF DERIVATION. 



At the commencement of Lecture II., I informed you that 
Etymology treats, Sdly, of derivation. This branch of Etymol- 
ogy, important as it is, cannot be very extensively treated in an 
elementary work on grammar. In the course of the preceding 
lectures, it has been frequently agitated ; and now I shall offer a 
few more remarks, which will doubtless be useful in illustrating 
some of the various methods in v/hich one word is derived from 
another. Before you proceed, however, please to turn back and 
read again what is advanced on this subject on page 27, and in 
the Philosophical Notes. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs. 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs. 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns. 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives. 

5. Adverbs are derived from adjectives. 

1. Nouns are derived from verbs; as, from "to love," comes 
"lover;" from "to visit, visiter;" from "to survive, surviver," 
&c. 

In the following instances, and in many others, it is difficult to 



172 ETYMOLOGY AND SYNTAX. 

determine whether the verb was deduced from the noun, or the 
noun from the verb, viz. " Love, to love ; hate, to hate ; fear, to 
fear; sleep, to sleep ; walk, to walk; ride, to ride; aci^toact," 

2. Verbs are derived from nouns, adjectives, and sometimes 
from adverbs ; as, from the noun salt, comes " to salt ;'' from the 
adjective warm, "to warm;" and from the d^diverh forvmrd, "to 
forward." Sometimes they are formed by lengthening the vowel, 
or softening the consonant ; as, from " grass, to graze ;" sometimes 
by adding en; as, from "length, to lengthen;'* especially to ad- 
jectives; as, from " short, to shorten ; bright, to brighten." 

3. Adjectives are derived from nouns in the following manner : 
adjectives denoting plenty are derived from nouns by adding y ; 
as, from " Health, healthy ; wealth, wealthy ; might, mighty," &c. 

Adjectives denoting the matter out of which any thing is made, 
are derived from nouns by adding en ; as, from " Oak, oaken ; 
wood, wooden ; wool, woollen," &c. 

Adjectives denoting abundance are derived from nouns by add- 
ing y?//; as, from " Joy, joyful ; sin, sinful ; fruit, fruitful," &;c. 

Adjectives denoting plenty, but with some kind of diminution, 
are derived from nouns by adding some; as, from "Light, light- 
some ; trouble, troublesome ; toil, toilsome," &;c. 

Adjectives denoting want are derived from nouns by adding 
less ; as, from "Worth, worthless;" from "care, careless; joy, 
joyless," &;c. 

Adjectives denoting likeness are derived from nouns by adding 
ly ; as, from "Man, manly; earth, earthly; court, courtly," &c. 

Some adjectives are derived from other adjectives, or from 
nouns by adding isli to them ; which termination when added to 
adjectives, imports diminution, or lessening the quality ; as, 
" White, whitish ;" j. e. somewhat white. When added to nouns, 
it signifies similitude or tendency to a character ; as, " Child, 
childish ; thief, thievish." 

Some adjectives are formed from nouns or verbs by adding the 
termination ahle ; and those adjectives signify capacity ; as, 
" Answer, answerable ; to change, changeable." 

4. Nouns are derived from adjectives, sometimes by adding the 
termination ness ; as, " White, whiteness; swift, swiftness ;" some- 
times by adding tli or t, and making a small change in some of 
the letters; as, "Long, length; high, height." 

5. Adverbs of quality are derived from adjectives, by adding 
ly, or changing le into ly ; and denote the same quality as the 
adjectives from which they are derived ; as, from " base," comes 
"basely;" from "slow, slowly;" from "able, ably." 



DERIVATION, 173 

There are so many otner ways of deriving words from one 
another, that it would be extremely difficult, if not impossible, to 
enumerate them. The primitive words of every language are 
very few ; the derivatives form much the greater number. A 
few more instances only can be given here. 

Some nouns are derived from other nouns, by adding the ter- 
minations hood or head^ ship, cry, wick, rick, dom, ian, ment, and 
age. 

Nouns ending in hood or head, are such as signify character or 
qualities ; as, " Manhood, knighthood, falsehood," &;c. 

Nouns ending in ship, are those that signify office, employ- 
ment, state, or condition ; as, " Lordship, stewardship, partner- 
ship," &;c. Some nouns in ship are derived from adjectives ; as, 
" Hard, hardship," &c. 

Nouns which end in ery, signify action or habit ; as, " Slavery, 
foolery, prudery,'' &c. Some nouns of this sort come from adjec- 
tives ; as, " Brave, bravery," &;c. 

Nouns ending in wick, rick, and dom, denote domfinion, juris- 
diction, or condition ; as, " Bailiwick, bishopric, kingdom, duke- 
dom, freedom," &c. 

Nouns which end in ian, are those that signify profession ; as, 
" Physician, musician," &;c. Those that end in ment and age, 
come generally from the French, and commonly signify the act 
or habit ; as, " Commandment," " usage." 

Some nouns ending in ard, are derived from verbs or adjec- 
tives, and denote character or habit; as, "Drunk, drunkard; 
dote, dotard." 

Some nouns have the form of diminutives ; but these are not 
many. They are formed by adding the terminations kin, ling, 
ing, ock, el, and the like ; as, " Lamb, lambkin ; goose, gosling ; 
duck, duckling; hill, hillock; cock, cockerel,'^ &:c. 

OF PREPOSITIONS USED AS PPtEFIXEG. 
I gLsIi conclude this lecmra by presenting and explaining a list of Latin 
and Greek prepositions v/hich ars extensively used in English as prefixes. 
By carefully stud}Tng their eigniScg-tion, you v/ill be better qualified to un- 
dersU-^-nd the meaning of taoce words into the ccmpoeition of which they 
eute^, and of which they form a material part. 

I. LATIN PREFIXES. 
A, ah, ahs — signify from or av/ay ; as, a-vert, t© turn from ; ah-ject, to throw 
away ; ahs-tract, to draw aw^ay. 

Ad — to or at ; as, ad-h^re, to stick to ; ad-mire, to wonder at 
Ante — means before ; as, ante-cedent, going before. 
Circum — signifies romid, about ; as, circum-navigate, to sail round. 
Con, com, co, col — togetner : as, con-join, to join together ; corn-press, to 
press together ; co-operate, to work together ; col-lapse, to fall together. 
Con/m— against ; as, contra-diet, to speak against. 

15* 



174 ETYMOLOGY. 

De— 'trom, down ; as, de-duct, to take from ; de-gc&nd, to go down. 

Di, dis-— asunder, away ; as, di-lacerate, to tear asunder ; dis-mtss, to send 
away. 

E, sf, ex — out; as, e-ject, l)j throw out; ef-Jlux, to flow out; ex-clude^ to 
shut out. 

^a;^r«-— beyond ; as, extra-ordinary, beyond what is ordinary. 

m, im, il, ir — {in, Gothic, inna, a cave or cell ;) as, in-fuse, to pour in. 
These prefixes, when incorporated with adjectives or nouns, commonly re- 
verse their meaning ; as, in-su^icient, iTn-polite, il-legitimate, ir-reverencCf ir- 
resolute. 

Inter — -between ; as, inter-^ose, to put bet^^een. 

Intro — wdthin, into 5 intro-vert, to turn within ; iniro-duce, to lead into. 

Ob, op — denote opposition ; as, ob-ject, to bring against; op-pugn, to oppose. 

Per — through, by ; as, per-amhulate, to walk through ; per-haps, by haps. 

Post — after ; as, post-script, written after ; post-fix, placed after. 

Prce, pre — before ; as, prefix, to fix before. 

Pro — for, forth, forw^ard ; as, pro-noun, for a noun ; pro-tend, to stretch 
forth ; pro-ject, to shoot forward. 

Prceter — past, beyond ; as, preter-perfiect, pastperfect ; preter-naturcU, be- 
yond the course of nature. 

Re — again or back ; as, re-peruse, to peiTise again ; re-trace, to trace back. 

Retro — backwards ; as, retrospective, looking backw^ards. 

Se — aside, apart ; ae, se-duce, to draw aside. 

Sub — imder ; as, subscribe, to write under, or sub-sign. 

Subter — under ; as, subter-jluous, flowdng under. 

Super — above or over ; as, superscribe, to write above ; super-vise, to 
overlook. 

Trans — over, beyond, from one place to another ; as, trans-port, to carry 
over ; trans-gress, to pass beyond. 

II. GREEK PREFIXES. 

A — signifies piivation ; as, anonymous, wdthout name. 

Amphi — both or two ; as, amphi-bious, partal?;ing of both or two natures. 

And — against ; as, anti-masonry, against masoniy. 

Dia — through ; as, dia-meter, line passing through a circle. 

Hyper — over ; as, hyper-critical, over or too critical. 

Hypo — under, impl}Tng concealment or disguise ; as, hypo-crite, one dis- 
sembling his re?J character. 

Meta — denotes change or transmutation ; as, meta-^morphose, to change the 
shape. 

Para — contraiy or against ; as, para-dox, a thing eonti'ary to received 
opinion. 

Pen —round about ; as, peri-phrasis, circumlocution. 

Syn, syl, sym — together ; as, syn-tax, a placing together ; syji-od, a meet- 
ing or coming together ; syl-lable, that portion of a word which is taken to- 
gether ; sym-pathy, feUow-feeling, or feeling together 



175 

RULES OF SYNTAX, 

WITH ADDITIONAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 



The third part of Grammar is Syntax, whicli 
treats of the agreement and government of words, 
and of their proper arrangement in a sentence. 

Syntax consists of two parts, Concord and Gov- 
ernmerat. 

Concord is the a^greement which one word has 
with another, in gender, person, number, or case. 

For the illustration of agreement and government, see pages 
52, and 53. 

For the definition of a sentence, and the transposition of its 
words and members, see pages 119, 124, 128, and 167. 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the 
nominative or subject, the verh or attribute, or word 
that makes the affirmation, and the object^ or thing 
affected by the action of the verb ; as, " A wise man 
qovevjis his passions,'^^ In this sentence, man is the 
subject ; governs^ the attribute ; and passions the 
object. 

A PHRASE is two or more words rightly put to- 
gether, making som^etimes a part of a sentence, and 
sometimes a whole sentence. 

Ellipsis is the omission of some word or words, 
m order to avoid disagreeable and unnecessary repe- 
titions, and to express our ideas concisely, and with 
strength and elegance. 

In this recapituladon of the rules, Syntax is presented in a 
condensed form, many of the essential Notes being omitted. 
This is a necessary consequence of my general plan, in which 
Etymology and Syntax, you know are blended. Hence, to ac- 
quire a complete knowledge of Syntax from this work, you must 
look over the whole. 



176 RULES OF SYNTAX. 



You may now proceed and parse the following additional exer- 
cises in false Syntax ; and, as you analyze, endeavor to correct 
all the errors without looking at the Key. If, in correcting these 
examples, you should be at a loss in assigning the reasons why 
the constructions are erroneous, you can refer to the manner 
adopted in the foregoing pages. 

The article a or an agrees with nouns in the sin- 
gular number only, individually or collectively ; as, 
' A star, an eagle, a score, a thousand." 

KUIiE II. 

The definite article the belongs to nouns in the 
singular or plural number ; as, " The star, the stars ; 
the hat, the hats." 

Note 1. A nice distinction in the meaning is sometimes effected by the 
use or omission of the article a. If I say, ^' He behaved with a Httle reve- 
rence," my meaning is positive. But if I say, '* He behaved w^ith little reve- 
rence," my meaning is negative. By the former, I rather praise a person ; 
by the latter, I dispraise him. When I say, " There were few men with 
him," I speak diminutively, and mean to represent them as inconsiderable ; 
whereas, when I say, ** There were a few men with him," I evidently intend 
to make the most of them. 

2. The indefinite article sometimes has the meaning of every or each ; as, 
" They cost five shillings a dozen ;" that is, ' every dozen.' 

" A man he was to all the country dear, 
" And passing rich with forty pounds a year !" 
that is, * every year.' 

3. When several adjectives are connected, and express the various quali- 
ties of things individually different, though alike in name, the article should 
be repeated ; but when the qualities all belong to the same thmg or things, 
the article should not he repeated. " A black and a white calf," signifies, A 
black calf J and a white calf; but '* A black and white calf," describes the 
two colors of one calf. 

ltUI.E III. 

The nominative case governs the verb ; as, " 1 
learn, thou learnest, he learns, they learn." 

RUI.E IV. 

The verb must agree with its nominative in num- 
ber and person ; as, " The bird singSj the birds si7ig, 
thou singest.^^ 

Note 1. Every verb, when it is not in the infinitive mood, must have a nomi- 
native, expressed or implied; as, " Awake, arise ;" that is, Awake ye ; arise ye. 

2. When a verb comes between two nouns, either of w^hich may be con- 
sidered as the subject of the affirmation, it must agree with that which is 
more naturally its subject ; as, '' The wages of sin is deaTh ; His meat 7cas 
locusts and wild honey ;" '' His pavihon were dark waters and thick clouds:" 



1 



RULES OF Si^NIAX. 177 

EXAMPLES OF FALSE SYNTAX. 

Frequent commission of sin harden men in it. 

Grrat pains has been taken to reconcile the pa^^ties. 

So much both of ability and merit, are seldom found. 

The sincere is always esteemed. 

Not one of them are happy. 

What avails the best sentiments, if peopje do not live suitably 
to them ? 

Disappointments sinks the heart of man ; but the renewal of 
hope give consolation. 

The variety of the productions of genius, like that of the 
operations of nature, are without limit. 

A variety of blessings have been conferred upon us. 

Thou cannot heal him, it is true, but thou may do s©mething 
to relieve him. 

In piety and virtue consist the happiness of man. 
O thou, my voice inspire, 
Who touched Isaiah's hallowed lips with fire. 
Note 1. Will martial flames for ever fire thy mind, 
And never, never be to Heaven resigned ? 

He was a man whose inclinations led him to be corrupt, and 
had great abilities to manage the business. 
Note 2. The crown of virtue is peace and honor. 

His chief occupation and enjoyment were controversy. 

When an address is made, the noun or pronoun 
addressed, is put in the nominative case indefpendent ; 
a.s, " Plato, thon reasonest well ; '^ Do, Trim^ said 
my nncle Toby." 

Note 1. A noun is independent, when it has no verb to agree with it- 
2. Interjections require the objective case of a pronomi of the ^rs^ person 

after them, but the nominative of a noun or pronoun of the second or third 

person ; as, '' Ah! me; Oh ! thou; O ! virtue. ^^ 

KUi-E: \ 1. * 

A nonn or pronoun placed before a participle, and 
being independent of the rest of the sentence, is in 
the nominative case absolute ; as, " Shame being lost^ 
ah virtue is lost ;" '' The sun being rise?^ we travel- 
led on." 

Note. Every nominative case, except the case absolute and independent, 
ehould belong to some verb expressed or understood ; as, " To whom thus, 
Adam;'' that is, spoke. 



178 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Him Destroyed, 
Or won to what may work his utter loss, 
All this will follow soon. 
Note. — Two substantives, when they come together, and do not 
signify the same thing, the former must be in the genitive case. 
Virtue, however it may be neglected for a time, men are so 
constituted as ultimately to acknowledge and respect genuino 
merit. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, sig- 
nifying the same thing, are put, by apposition, in the 
same case ; as, " Paul^ the apostle ;" " Joram^ the 
king ;" " Solomon^ the son of David, king of Israel, 
wrote many proverbs." 

Note. A noun is sometimes put in apposition with a sentence ; as, " The 
sheriif has just seized and sold his valuable library — (which was) a misfor^ 
tune that greatly depressed him." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

We oui2;ht to love God, he who created and sustains all things. 

The pronoun he in this sentence, is improperly used in the nominative case. 
It is the object of the action of the transitive verb " love," and put by appo' 
sition with '*God ;" therefore it should be the objective case, hirrif according 
to Rule 7. (Repeat the Rule, and correct the following.) 

I saw Juliet and her brother, they that you visited. 

They slew Varus, he that was mentioned before. 

It was John, him who preached repentance. 

Adams and Jefferson, them who died on the fourth of July 
1826, were both signers and the firm supporters of the Declara- 
tion of Independence. 

Augustus the Roman emperor, him who succeeded Julius 
Cesar, is variously described by historians. 

MUl^S Till. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in 
the singular number, connected by copulative con- 
junctions, must have verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
agreeing with them in the plural ; as, " Socrates and 
Plato were wise ; they were eminent philosophers.'^^ 

Note 1. When each or et^er^ relates to two or more nominatives in the 
singular, although connected by a copulative, the verb must agree with each 
of them in the singular ; as, '^ Every leaf, and every twig, and every drop of 
water, ^eem* with life." 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 179 

2. When the singular nominative of a complex senteiioe, has another noun 
joined to it with a preposition, it is customary to put the verb and pronoun 
agreeing with it, in the singular; as, " Prosperity with humihty, renders iU 
possessor truly amiable ;" " The General^, also, in conjunction w4th the offi- 
cers, Tias applied for redress." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Coffee and sugar grows in the West Indies : it is exported in 
large quantities. 

Two singular nouns coupled together, form a plural idea. The verb grows 
is improper, because it expresses the action of both its nominatives, " coffeo 
and sugar," which two nominatives are connected by the copulative conjunc- 
tion, and; therefore the verb should be plural, grow; and then it would 
agree with coifee and sugar, according to Rule 8. (Repeat the Ride.) The 
pronoun iij as it represents l3oth the nouns, " coffee and sugar," ought also to 
be plural, they, agreeably to Rule 8. The sentence should be written thus, 
^' Coffee and sugar grow in the West Indies : they are exported in large 
quantities." 

Time and tide waits for no man. 

Patience and diligence, like faith, removes mountains. 

Life and health is both uncertain. 

Wisdom, virtue, happiness, dwells with the golden mediocrity. 

The planetary system, boundless space, and the immense ocean, 
affects the mind with sensations of astonishment. 

What signifies the counsel and care of preceptors, when you 
think you have no need of assistance ? 

Their love, and their hatred, and their envy, is now perished. 

Why is whiteness and coldness in snow ? 

Obey the commandment of thy father, and the law of thy 
mother ; bind it continually upon thy heart. 

Pride and vanity always render its possessor despicable in the 
eyes of the judicious. 

There is error and discrepance in the schemes of the orthoe- 
pists, v/hich shows the impossibility of carrying them into effect, 

EXAMPLES FOR THE NOTE. 

Every man, woman, and child, were numbered. 
Not proper ; for, although and couples things together so as to present the 
whole at one viev/, yet every has a contrary effect : it distributes them, and 
brings each separately and singly under consideration. Were numbered is 
therefore improper. It should be, " was numbered," in the singular, accord- 
ing to the Note. (Repeat it.) 

When benignity and gentleness reign in our breasts, every 

person and every occurrence are beheld in the most favorable 

li/rht. 

i^uiiE ax. 

Two or more nouns, or nouns and pronouns, in 

the siiigidar number, connected by disjunctive con- 



180 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

junctions, must nave verbs, nouns, and pronouns, 
agreeing with them in the singular; as, " Neither 
John nor James has learned his lesson.'' 

Note 1. When singular pronouns, or a noun and pronoun, of different 
persons, are disjunctively connected, the verb must agree, in person, v^th 
that which is placed nearest to it ; as, '' Thou or I am in fault ; I or thou art 
to blame; I, or thou, or he, is the author of it." But it would be better to 
eay, *• Either I am to blame or thou art," &c. 

2. When a disjunctive occurs between a singular noun or pronoun and a 
plural one, the verb must agree with the plural noun or pronoun, which 
should generally be placed next to the verb ; as, '' Neither poverty nor riches 
were injurious to him;" " I or they were offended by it." 

Constructions like these ought generally to be avoided. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ignorance or negligence have caused this mistake. 

The verb, have caused, in this sentence, is improperly used in the plural, 
because it expresses the action, not of both, but of eiti;er the one or the other 
of its nominatives ; therefore it should be in the singular, has caused ; and 
then it would agree with '^ ignorance or negligence, ' agreeably to Rule 9. 
^Repeat the Rule.) 

A circle or a square are the same in idea. 

Neither whiteness nor redness are in the porphyry. 

Neither of them are remarkable for precision. 

Man is not such a machine as a clock or a watch, which move 
merely as they are moved. 

When sickness, infirmity, or reverse of fortune, affect us, the 
sincerity of friendship is proved. 

Man's happiness or misery are, in a great measure, put into 
his own hands. 

Despise no infirmity of mind or body, nor any condition of 
life, for they may be thy own lot. 

The prince, as well as the people, were blameworthy. 

A collective noun or noun of multitude, convey- 
ing unity of idea., generally has a verb or pronoun 
agreeing with it in the singular; as, ^'The meeting was 
large, and it held three hours." 

Note Rules 10, and 11, are limited in their application. See page 59. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
The nation are powerful. 
The fleet were seen sailing up the channel. 
The church have no power to inflict corporal punishment. 
The flock, and not the fleece, are, or ought to be, the objects 
of the shepherd's care. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 181 

That nation was once powerful ; but now they are feeble. 

RUIiE XI. 

A noun of multitude, conveying plurality of idea, 
must have a verb or pronoun agreeing with it in the 
plural ; as, " The council were divided in their senti- 
ments." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
My people doth not consider. 

The multitude eagerly pursues pleasure as its chief good. 
The ccanmittee was divided in its sentiments, and it has refer- 
red the business to the general meeting. 

The people rejoices in that which should give it sorrow. 

RUIiE Xll. 

A noun or pronoun in the possessive case, is gov- 
erned by the noun it possesses ; as, " Marias happi- 
ness ;" " Its value is great." 

Note 1. When the possessor is described by a circumlocution, the pos- 
sessive sign should generally be applied to the last tenii only ; as, '' The duke 
of BHdgewaters canal ; The bUhop of Landajjf^s excellent book ; The cap- 
tain of the guard''s house." This usage, however, ought generally to be 
avoided. The words do not literally convey the ideas intended. What non- 
sense to say, '' This is the governor of Ouzo's house !" 

2. When noiins in the possessive case are in apposition, and follow each 
other in quick succession, the possessive sign is generally annexed to the last 
only ; as, *' For David my servanfs sake ; John the Baptist's head ; The canal 
was built in consequence of I>e Witt Clinton the governor's advice." 

But when a pause is proper, and the governing noun not expressed, the 
sign should be applied to the first possessive only, and understood to the rest; 
as, '' I reside at Lord Stormonfs, my old patron and benefactor.''^ 

3. Its, the possessive case of it, is often improperly used for His, or, it is ; 
as, ^^ Its my book: Its his," &c. ; instead of, ^^ It is my book; or, ^Tis my 
book ; It is his ; or, ' Tis his." 

4. Participle? frequently govern nouns and pronouns in the possessive case; 
as, *^ In case of his majesty^ s dying without issue, &c. ; Upon God's having 
ended all his works, &:c. ; I remember its being reckoned a great exploit ; 
At my coming in he said," &c. But in such instances, the participle vdth its 
adjuncts may be considered a substantive phrase, according to Note 2, Rule 28 

5. Pln-ases like these, ''A work of Washington Irving^ s ; A brother of 
Joseph's ; A friend of mine ; A neighbor of yours,"" do not, as some have sup- 
posed, each contain a double possessive, or two possessive cases, but tliey 
may be thus construed ; " A work of (out of, or, among the number of) Wash- 
ington Irving' s icorks ; that is. One of the works of Washington Irving ; 
One of the brothers o^ Joseph; One friend of my friends ; One neighbor of 
your neighbors," 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Homers works are much admired. 

Nevertheless, Asa his heart was not perfect with the Lord. 

16 



182 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

James Hart, his book, bought August the 19, 1829. 

Note 1. It was the men's, women's, and children's lot to suffer 
great calamities. 

This is Peter's, John's, and Andrew's occupation. 

Note 2. This is Campbell's the poet's production. 

The silk was purchased at Brown's, the mercer's and haber- 
dasher's. 

Note 4. Much will depend on the pupil composing frequently. 

Much depends on this rule being observed. 

The measure failed in consequence of the president neglecting 
to lay it before the council. 

HJJJuM Xlll. 

Personal pronouns must agree with the nouns for 
which they stand, in gender and number; as " John 
writes, and he will soon write well." 

Note. You, tboiigh frequently employed to represent a sin^ar noun, is 
always plural inform ; therefore the verb connected with it should be plural; 
as, '^ My friend, you were mistaken." See pages 99 and 100. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Every man will be rewarded according to their works. 

Incorrect, because the pronoun their does not agree in gender or number 
with the noun " man," for which it stands ; consequently Rule 13, is violated. 
Their should be his ; and then the pronoun would be of the masculine gen- 
der, singular number, agreeing with man, according to Rule 13. (Repeat 
the Rule.) 

An orator's tongue should be agreeable to the ear of their 
audience. 

Rebecca took goodly raiment, and put them on Jacob. 

Take handfuls of ashes, and let Moses sprinkle it towards hea- 
ven, in the sight of Pharaoh, and it shall become small dust. 

No one should incur censure for being tender of their repu- 
tation. 

Note. Horace, you was blamed ; and I think you was worthy 
of censure. 

Witness, where was you standing during the transaction ? 
How far was you from the defendant ? 

Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, m 
gender^ person^ and number; as, "Thou who lovest 
wisdom ;" " I who speak from experience." 

Note. When a relative pronoun is preceded by two antecedents of dif- 
ferent persons, the relative and the verb may agree in person with either, bui 
not vnthout regard to the sensd ; as, ^' I am the man who command you ;" or 



RULJvS OF SYNTAX. 183 

** I am the man who commands you." The meaning of the first of these ex- 
amples wdll more obviously appear, if we render it thus: " I who comimand 
you, am the many 

When the agreement of the relative has been fixed v/ith either of the pre- 
ceding antecedents, it must be presel•^^ed throughout the sentence ; as, •' I 
am the Lord, that laaketh ail things ; that stretcheth forth the heavens alone j 
that spreadeth abroad the earth by myself," &/C. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Thou who has been a witness of the fact, canst state it. 

The wheel killed another man, which make the sixth which 
have lost their lives by this means. 

Thou great First Cause, least understood ! 

Who all my sense confined. 

Notey 2d part. Thou art the Lord, who didst choose Abra- 
ham, and brought him forth out of Ur of the Chaldees. 

MUSiE XV. 

The relative is the nominative case to the verb, 
when no nominative comes between it and the verb : 

as, " The master who taught us, vf as eminent." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
If he will not hear his best friend, whom shall be sent to ad- 
monish him. 

This is the man whom, he informed me, w^as my benefaclor. 

HUJLE XV5. 

When a nominative comes between the relative 
and the verb^ the relative is governed by the follow- 
ing verb, or by some other word in its own member 
of the sentence ; as, " He vDhom I serve^ is eternal." 

Note 1. T^lio, which, what, the relative that, and their compounds, whom- 
ever, tchomsoever, &c., thongh in the objective case, are always placed be- 
fore the verb ; as, " He whom ye seek, has gone hence." 

2. Every relative must have an antecedent to which it relates, either ex- 
pressed or implied ; as, " V/ho steals my purse, steals trash ;" that is, he who. 
. 3. The pronouns whichsoever, lohatsoever, and the like, are sometimes ele- 
gantly di'v^ded by the interposition of the corresponding nouns ; as, " On 
which side soever the king cast his eyes," &c. 

4. The pronoun zohat is sometimes improperly used instead of the con- 
iunction that ; as, ^' Ke would not believe but what I was in fault." It should 
D6, ^' but that,^^ &c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

That is the friend who I sincerely esteem. 

Not proper, because who, which is the object of the action expressed by 
the transiti\e verb " esteem," is in the nominative case. It ought to be whom. 



184 RULES 07 SYNTAX. 



^1 



in the objective ; and then it would be governed by esteem, accordhig tu 
Rule 16. (Repeat the Rule :) — and, also, according to Rule 20. '' That ia 
the friend whom I sincerely esteem." 

They who much is given to, will have much to answer for. 

From the character of those who you associate with, your 
own will be estimated. 

He is a man who I greatly respect. 

Our benefactors and tutors are the persons who we ought to 
love, and who we ought to be grateful to. 

They who conscience and virtuei support, may smile at the 
caprices of fortune. 

Who did you walk with ? 

Who did you see there ? 

Who did you give the book to ? 

i^uiLrE xvsir. 

When a relative pronoun is of the interrogative 
kind, it refers to the word or phrase containing the 
answer to the question for its subsequent^ which sub- 
sequent must agree in case with the interrogative ; 
as, '' Whose book is that? JosepJCs;''^ "Who gave 
you this? John.^^ 

Note. Whether the interrogative really refers to a subsequent or not, is 
doubtful ; but it is certain that the subsequent should agree in case with the 
interi'ogative. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Who gave John those books ? Us. Of whom did you buy 
them ? Of a bookseller, he who lives in Pearl-street. 
Who walked with you ? My brother and him. 
Who will accompany me to the country ? Her and me. 

Adjectives belong to, and quahfy nouns, expressed 
or understood ; as, " He is a good^ as well as a wise 
man." 

Note 1. Adjectives frequently belong to pronouns ; as, " /am miserable ; 
He is inditstriGUs.^^ 

2. Numeral ad-jectives belong to nouns, v^hich nouns must agree in num- 
ber with their adjectives, when of the cardinal kind ; as, '* Ten fert ; Eighty 
fathoms. ^^ But some anomalous and figurative expressions form an excep- 
tion to this rule ; as, *' A fleet of forty sail ;" ''^ Tico hundred, head of cattle^ 

3. Adjectives sometimes belong to verbs in the infinitive mood, or to a part 
of a sentence; as, " To see is pleasant ; To be blind is unfortunate ; To die 
for our country is glorious,''^ 

4. Adjectives are often used to modify the sense of other adjectives, or the 
action of verbs, and to express the quality of things in connexion with the 



RULES f)F SYNTAX. 18b 

Bction by which that quality is produced ; as, " Red hot iron ; Pale h*ue 
lining ; Deep sea-green sash ; The apples boil soft ; Open your hand wide ; 
The clay burns ickite ; The fire burns hhie ; The eggs boil Jiard.''^ 

5. When an adjective is preceded by a preposition, and the noun is under- 
stood, the two words may be considered an adverbial phrase ; as, " In gene- 
ral, in particular ;" that is, generally, particularly. 

6. Adjectives should be placed next to the nouns which they qualify; as, 
'' A tract of good land." 

7. We should generally avoid comparing such adjectives as do not literally 
admit of comparison ; such as, more impossible, most impossible ; more uh^ 
conquerable, more perfect, ^c. See Remarks on adjectives, page 7Q. 

8. When an adjective or an adverb is used in comparing two objects, it 
should be in the comparative degree ; but when more than two are com- 
pared, the superlative ought to be employed ; as, " Julia is the taller of the 
two ; Her specimen is the best of the three." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Note 2. The boat carries thirty tun. 

The chasm was twenty foot broad, and one hundred fathom in 
depth. 

Note 6. He bought a new pair of shoes, and an elegant piece 
of furniture. 

My cousin gave his fine pair of horses for a poor tract of land. . 

Note 7. The contradictions of impiety are still more incom- 
prehensible. 

It is the most uncertain way that can be devised. 

This is a more perfect model than 1 ever saw before. 

Note 8. Which of those two cords is the strongest? 

I was at a loss to determine which was the wiser of the three. 

K1II.E XIX. 

Adjective pronouns belong to nouns, expressed or 
understood ; as, '' Aiiy man, all men." 

Note 1. The demonstrative adjective pronouns must agree in number 
with their nouns ; as, *' This book, these books ; that sort, those sorts." 

2. The pronominal adjectives, each, every, either, neither, another, and one, 
agree with nouns in the singular number only ; as, " Each man, every per- 
son, another lesson ;" unless the plural nouns convey a collective idea : as, 
*' Every six months." 

3. Either is often improperly employed instead of each ; as, " The king of 
Israel, and Jehoshaphat the king of Judah, sat either of them on his throne." 
Each signifies both taken separately ; either impHes only the one or the othet 
taken disjunctively : — '' sat each on his throne." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note 1. Those sort of favors do real injury. 
They have been playing this two hours. 
These kind of indulgences soften and injure the mind. 
He saw one or more persons enter the garden. 
Nnt£ 2. Let each esteem others better than themselves. 

16* 



186 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

There are bodies, each of which are so small as to be invisible. 
Every person, whatever their station may be, are bound by the 
laws of morality and religion. 

Note 3. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 
Nadab and Abihu took either of them his censer. 

Mui-.s: XX. 
Active-transitive verbs govern the objective case; 
as, "Cesar conquered Pompey ;^^ "Columbus dis- 
covered America ;^^ " Truth ennobles Aer." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Ye who were dead, hath he quickened. 

Ye, in the nominative case, is erroneous, because it is the object of the ac- 
tion expressed by the transitive verb '^ hath quickened ;" and therefore it 
should be you, in the objective case. You would then be governed by " hath 
quickened," agreeably to Rule 20. Active-transitive verbs govern the objec- 
tive case. 

Who did they entertain so freely ? 

They who opulence has made proud, and who luxury has cor- 
rupted, cannot relish the simple pleasures of nature. 

He and they we know, but who are ye ? 

She that is negligent, reprove sharply. 

He invited my brother and I to pay hnn a visit. 

"Who did they send on that mission ? 

They who he has most injured, he had the greatest reason to 
love. 

iriXI.E XXI. 

The verb to be may have the same case after it as 
before it; as, "Jam the nianf^ "I believe it to have 
been them;^^ "He is the thief. ^^ 

Note 1. When nouns or pronouns next preceding and folio Vvdng the verb 
to be, signify the same thing, they are iji apposition, and, therefore, in the 
same case. Rule 21 is predicated on the principle contained in Rule 7. 

2. The verb to be is often uuderstood ; as, " The Lord made me man ; He 
made him what he was ;" that is, " The Lord made me to be man ; He made 
him Jo be that tvhich he was." '' They desired me to call them brethren;^ 
i. e. by the name of brethren. " They named him John;'''' i. e. by the name 
of John ; or, by the name John : putting these two noans in apposition, 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

I know it to be they. 

Lnproper, because it is in the objective case before the verb " to be," and 
they is in the nominative after; consequently. Rule 21 is violated. They is 
in apposition with it, therefore they should be them, in the objective after to 
be, according to Rule 21 (Repeat the Rale. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. \^ 

Be composed, it is me. 
I would not act thus, if I were him. 
Well may you be afraid ; it is himj indeea. 
• Who do you fancy him to to be ? 
Whom do men say that I am ? Whom say ye that I am ? 
If it was not him, who do you im.agine it to have been ? 
He supposed it was me ; but you knew that it was him. 

KUX.E XXII. 

Active-intransitive and passive verbs, the verb to 
become^ and other neuter verbs, have the same case 
after them a^s before them, when both words refer 
to, and signify, the same thing ; as, " Tom struts a 
soldier ;'' " Will sneaks a scrivener ;^^ ^^ He was called 
Cesar ;'' '' The general was saluted emperor ;" " They 
have become ybo/5." 

Note 1. Active-iiitransitive verbs sometimes assume a ti'ansitive form, 
aud govern the objective case ; as, '^ To dream a dream ; To run a race ; To 
walk the horse; To dance the child; To fly the hite.''^ 

2. According to a usage too common in colloquial style, an agent not liter- 
ally the correct one, is employed as the nominative to a passive V3rb, v^hich 
causes the verb to be followed by an objective case vathout the possibility of 
supplying before it a preposition : thus, " Pitticus was offered a large sum by 
the king;" ^' She was -promised them (the jewels) hj her mother;" "/was 
asked a question.''^ It would be better sense, and more agreeable to the 
idiom of our language, to say, '^ A large sum was offered to Pitticus ;" " They 
vrere promised (to) her ;^^ " A question was put to vieT 

3. Some passive verbs are formed by using the participles of compound 
active verbs. To smile, to wonder, to dream, are hitransitive verbs, for which 
reason they have no passive voice ; but, to smile on, to wonder at, to dream 
of, are compound active-transitive verbs, and, therefore, admit of a passive 
voice ; as, " He was smiled on by fortune ; The accident is not to be %von- 
dercd at;^'' 

'' There are more things m heaven and earth, Horatio, 
*' Than are dreamed of in your philosophy." 
MUI.E XXllS. 

A verb in the infinitive m.ood may be governed 
by a verb, noun, adjective, participle, or pronoun ; 
as, " Cease to do evil ;" " We all have our talent to 
be improved ;'' " She is eager to lea.rn ;" " They are 
preparing to go ;'' ^' Let hhn do it." 

Illustration. The supposed principle of government referred to in this 
nile, may be thus illustrated. In the sentence, " Cease to do evil," the pe- 
culiar manner in which cease is introduced. reqzuref> or compels us to put the 
verb do m the infinitive mood ; and, according to the genius of our language, 
we cannot express this act of doing, when thus connected with cease, in any 
other mood, unless we change the constraction of the se^^tence. Hence wo 



188 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

say, that cease governs the mood of the verb do. Similar remarks may be 
applied to the words talent, eager, preparing, and him, in the respective ex- 
amples under the rule. 

Many respectable grammarians refer the government of this mood inva- 
riably to the preposition to prefixed, which word they do not. of course, con- 
sider a part of the verb. Others contend, and with some plausibility, that 
tliis mood is not governed by any particular word. If we reject the idea of 
government, as applied to the verb in this mood, the following rule, if sub- 
stituted for the foregoing, might, perhaps, answer all practical purposes. 

A yerb in the infinitive mood, refers to some noun 
or pronoun, as its subject or actor. 

Illustration of the examples under Rule XXIII. " To do" refers to 
thou understood for its agent ; ^' to be improved" refers to talent ; " to leani," 
to she ; " to go," to tkc^ ; and '* to do," refers to ^im." 

Note 1. The infinitive mood absolute stands independent of the rest of 
the sentence ; as, " To confess the truth, I was in fault." 

2. The infinitive mood is sometimes governed by conjunctions or adverbs; 
as, " An object so high as to be invisible ;" '' He is wise enough to deceive ;" 
*^ The army is about to marchJ'^ 

KUl^E XXIV. 

The infinitive mood, or part of a sentence, is fre- 
quently put as the nominative case to a verb, or the 
object of an active»transitive verb ; as, " To play is 
pleasant ;" '^ Boys love to play ;" " That warm cli- 
mates shorten life^ is reasonable to suppose ;" " He 
does not consider how near he approaches to his end^'^ 

Note. To, the sign of the infinitive mood, is sometimes properly omit- 
tt3d ; as, " I heard him say it ;" instead of, '-'■ to say it." 

KUJLE XXV. 

The verbs which follov^ hid^ dare^ need^ make^ see, 
hear^ feelj helpj let^ and their participles, are in the 
infinitive mood without the sign to prefixed; as, "He 
bids me come ;^^ ^^I dare engage ;^^ "Let me ^o;" 
"Help me do it ;^^ i. e. to come, to go, to do it, &c. 
" He is hearing me recite.^^ 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Bid him to come. 

He durst not to do it v/ithout permission. 
Hear him to read his lesson. 

It is the dilference in their conduct, which makes us to ap- 
prove the one, and to reject the other. 

It is better live on a little, than outlive a great deal. 
I wish him not wrestle with his happiness. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 189 

RUIiE XXVI. 

Participles have the same government as the verbs 
have from which they are derived; as, "I saw the 
tutor instructing his pupils,^^ 

Note The present participle with the definite article the before it, be- 
comes a noun, and must have the preposition of after it. The and of must 
both be used, or both be omitted ; as, " By the observing of truth, you will 
command respect ;" or, " By observing truth," &.c. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note. We cannot be wise and good without the taking pains 
for it. 

The changing times and seasons, the removing and setting up 
kings, belong to Providence alone. 

These are the rules of grammar, by observing of which you 
may avoid mistakes. 

M-VIjM xxvsi. 

The present participle refers to some noun or 
pronoun denoting the subject or actor ; as, " I see a 
boy runningJ^^ 

RUIiE XXVIM. 

The perfect participle belongs, like an adjective, 
to some noun or pronoun, expressed or understood ; 
as, " I saw the boy abusedJ^^ 

Note 1. Participles of neuter verbs have the same case after them as be- 
fore them ; as, '' Pontius Pilate being Governor of Judea, aiid Herod being 
Tetrarch,'" &c. 

2. A participle w^ith its adjuncts, may sometimes be considered as a sub- 
stantive or participial phrase, which phrase may be the subject of a verb, or 
the object of a verb or preposition ; as, '^ Taking from another icithout his 
knotcledge or assent, is called stealing ; He studied to avoid expressing him- 
self too severely ; I cannot fail of having Tnoney, &c. ; By promising much 
arid' performing hut little, we become despicable." 

3. As the perfect participle and the imperfect tense of irregular verbs, are 
sometimes different in their form, care must be taken that they be not indis- 
criminately used. It is frequently said, ' He begun,* for ' he began ;' ' He 
nui,^ for ' he ran ;' ' He come,' for ' he came ;' the participles being here 
used instead of the imperfect tense ; and much more fi^equently is the im- 
perfect tense employed instead of the participle ; as, ^ I had wrote,' for * I 
had written ;' ' I was chose,' for ' I was chosen ;' ^ I have eat,' for ' I have 
eaten.' * He would have spoke ;' — spoken. * He overrun his guide '^—over 
ran. * The sun had rose ;' — risen. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
I seen him. I have saw many a one. 

Seen is improper, the perfect participle being used instead of the imperfec 
tense of the verb. It ought to be " ^ saw him," according to Note 3. Have 



190 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

saw is also erroneous, the imperfect tense being employe i instead of the per- 
fect participle. The perfect tense of a verb is formed hj combining the aux- 
iliary have with its perfect participle : therefore the sentence should be writ 
ten thus, *' I have seen many a one :" Note 3. 

Note 3. He done me no harm, for I had wrote my letter before 
he come home. 

Had not that misfortune befel my cousin, he would have went 
to Europe long ago. 

The sun had already arose, when I began my journey. 

Since the work is began, it must be prosecuted. 

The French language is spoke in every state in Europe. 

He writes as the best authors would have wrote, had they writ 
on the same subject. 

liUlu]^ XXIX. 

Adverbs qualify verbs, participles, adjectives, and 
other adverbs ; as, " A very good pen writes extreme- 
ly well;^^ "By living temperately ^"^^ &:c. 

Note 1. Adverbs are generally set before adjectives or adverbs, after 
Terbs, or between the auxiliary and the verb ; as, '' He made a very sensible 
discourse, and was attentively heard." 

-2. When the qualifying word which follows a verb, expresses quality, it 
must be an adjective, but when it expresses manner, an adverb should bo 
used ; as, " She looks cold; She looks coldly on him ; He feels warm; Ho 
feels loarmly the insult offered to him." If the verb to he can be substituted 
for the one employed, an adjective should follow, and not an adverb ; as, 
''She looks \is'\ cold; The hay smells \is'\ sweet; The fields look [are] 
green; The apples taste \_are~\ sour; The w^md blows {is'\freshy 

3. It is not strictly proper to apply the adverbs here, there, and where, to 
verbs signifying motion, instead of the adverbs hither, thither, ^vhither : thus, 
" He came here [hither^ hastily ;" " They rode there \_thither~\ in two hours;" 
" Where \_ivhither'] will he go ?" But in familiar style, these constructions 
are so far sanctioned as sometimes to be admissible. 

4. The use of ichere, instead of in which, in constructions like the follow- 
ing, is hardly admissible : " The immortal sages of ^76, formed a charter, 
where [w which"] their rights are boldly asserted." 

5. As the adverbs hence, thence, and lohence, literally supply the place of 
a noun and preposition, there appears to be a solecism in employing a pre- 
position in conjunction with them : " From whe?ice it follows ;" " He came 
from thence since morniag." Better, " whence it follows ;" " He came 
thence^ The following phrases are also exceptionable : " The then minis- 
try ;" " The above argument ;" " Ask me never so much dowry ;" " Charra 
he never so wisely." Better, " The ministry of that time or period ;^^ " The 
'Dreceding argument;" " Ever so much dowry ;" " Ever so wisely." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note 1. It cannot be impertinent or ridiculous therefore to 
remonstrate. 

He was pleasing not often, because he was vain. 

These things should be never separated. 

We may happily live, though our possessions are small. 



RULES OF SYNTAX. 191 

RULE XXX. 

Two negatives destroy one another, and are gen- 
erally equivalent to an affirmative; as, " Such things 
are not w/zcommon ;" i. e. they are common. 

Note. When one of the two negatives employed is joined to another 
word, it forms a pleasing and delicate variety of expression ; as, " His lan- 
guage, though inelegant, is not %7^grammatical ;" that is, it is grammatical. 

But, as tw^o negatives, by destroying each other, are equivalent to an af- 
firmative, they should not be used when we wish to convey a negative mean- 
ing. The following sentence is therefore inaccurate : ** I cannot by no means 
allow him what his argument must prove." It should be, " I cannot by any 
means," &c., or, '' I can by no means." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Note, 2d part, I don't know nothing about it. 
I did not see nobody there. Nothing never affects her. 
Be honest, nor take no shape nor semblance of disguise. 
There cannot be nothing more insignificant than vanity. 
Precept nor discipline is not so forcible as example. 

RUIliE XXXi. 

Prepositions govern the objective case ; as, " He 
went from Utica fo Rome, and then passed through 
Redfield.'' 

FALSE SYNTAX. 

Each is accountable for hisself. 

They settled it among theirselves. 

It is not I who he is displeased with. 

Who did you go with ? 

Who did you receive instruction from ? 

Home^ and nouns signifying distance^ time wlien^ 
how long^ &c. are generally governed by a preposi- 
tion understood ; as, " The horse ran a mile ;" " He 
came home last June ;" " My friend hved four years 
at college f that is, ran through the space of a mile ; 
or, ran over a space called a mile ; to his home in 
last June ; during four years, &c. 

Note 1. The prepositions to and /or are often understood, chiefly before 
the pronouns; as, '' Give [to] me a book ; Get [for] him some paper.'* 

2. To OTunto, is, by some, supposed to be understood after like and unlike ; 
as, '' He is like [unto] his brother ; She is unlike [to] him." Others consider 
this mode of expression an idiom of the language, ana maintain that like 
governs the objective following it. 



192 RULES OF SYNTAX. 

3. Nouns signifying extension, duration, quantity, quality, or value, are 
used without a governing word ; as, " The Ohio is one thousand miles long; 
She is ten ^/ears old ; My hat is worth ten dollar s.^^ These are sometimes 
considered anomalies. See page 163. 

MUi:iE XXXSII. 

Conjunctions connect nouns and pronouns in the 
same case ; as, " The master taught her and me to 
write ;" " He and she are associates.'^ 
FALSE SYNTAX. 
My brother and him are grammarians. 
You and me enjoy great privileges. 

Him and I went to the city in company ; but John and him 
returned without me. 

Between you and I there is a great disparity of years. 

M.lJJ^l^ XXXIV. 

Conjunctions generally connect verbs of like 
moods and tenses; as, "If thou sincerely desire^ 
and earnestly pursue virtue, she will assuredly be 
found by thee, and prove a rich reward-" 

Note 1. When different moods and tenses are connected by conjunctions, 
the nominative must be repeated ; as, ^' He may return, but he will not tarry. *^ 

2. Conjunctions implying contingency or doubt, require the subjunctive 
mood after them ; as, '* i/*he study, he will improve." See pages 135, 145, 
and 155. 

3. The coiy unctions if, though, unless, except, whether, and lest, generally 
require the subjunctive mood after them. 

4. Conjunctions of a positive and absolute nature, implying no doubt, re- 
quire the indicative mood ; as, ^' As virtue advances, so vice recedes." 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
Did he not tell me his fault, and entreated me to forgive him ? 
Professing regard, and to act differently, discovers a base mind. 
Note 1. He has gone home, but may return. 
The attorney executed the deed, but will write no more. 
Note 2. I shall walk to-day, unless it rains. 
If he acquires riches, they will corrupt his mind. 
ISUI.E XXXV. 

A noun or pronoun following the conjunction 
fhan^ as^ or but^ is nominative to a verb, or governed 
by a verb or preposition, expressed or understood ; 
as, " Thou art wiser than I [am."] " I saw nobody 
but [I saw'} him.'' 

Note 1. The conjunction as, w^hen it is connected with such, many, or 
soTiw, is sometimes, though erroneously, called a relative pronoun ; as, ** Let 



SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 198 

9*eh BB presume to advise others," <fcc. ; that is, Let them who, &o. See 
page 116. 

2. An ellipsis, or omission of some words, is frequently admitted, which 
must be supplied in the mind in order to parse grammatically ; as, " Wo is 
me ;" that is, to me ; " To sleep all night ;" i. e. through all the night ; " He 
has gone a journey ;" i. e. on a journey ; '* They walked a league ;'' i. e. aver 
a space called a league. 

3. When the omission of words would obscure the sense, or weaken its 
force, they must be expressed. 

4. In the use of prepositions, and words that relate to each other, we should 
pay particular regard to the meaning of the words or sentences which they 

• connect : all the parts of a sentence should correspond to each other, and a 
regular and clear construction thi'oughout should be cai'efiilly preserved. 

FALSE SYNTAX. 
They are much greater gainers than me. 
They know how to write as well as him \ but he is a better 

grammarian than them. 

They were all well but him. 

None were rewarded but him and me. 

Jesus sought none but they who had gone astray. 

REMARKS ON THE TExNSES. 

1. In the use of verbs, and other words and phrases which, in 
ponit of tbne^ relate to each other, a due regard to that relation 
should be observed. 

Instead of saying, " The Lord hath given, and the Lord hath taken away;" 
we should say, ** The Lord gave, and the Lord hath taken away." Instead 
of, " I remember the family more than twenty- years ;" it should be, '' I have 
remembered the family more than twenty years." 

2. The best rule that can be given for the management of the 
tenses, and of words and phrases which, in point of time, relate 
to each other, is this very general one ; OhseTve what the sense 
necessarily requires. 

To say, '' I have ^dsited Washington last summer ; I have seen the \^'ork 
more than a month ago," is not good sense. The constructions should be, 
" J visited Washington, &c. ; I saw the work, &;c." "■ This mode of expres- 
sion has been formerly much admired:" — *'icas formerly much admu'ed." 
" If I had have been there ;" '' If I had have seen him ;" '' Had you have 
known him." are solecisms too gross to need coiTection. We can say, I have 
been, I had been ; but %vhat sort of a tense is. had have been 1 To place had 
before the defective verb ou^ht. is an en-or equally gross and illiterate : — *' had 
ought, hudnt ought." This is as low a \*ulgarism as the use of theim, heim, 
ancl hizzen, tother, furder, bayni, this ere, I seed it, I teWd liim. 

3. When we refer to a past action or event, and no part of thai 
time in which it took place ; remains, the imperfect tense should 
be used ; but if there is still remaining some portion of the time 
in which we declare that the thing has been done, the perfect 
tense should be employed. 

Thus, we say, " Philosophers made srreat discoveries in the last century ;* 

17 



194 SYNTAX OF THE TENSES. 

" He was much afflicted last year ;" but when we refer to the present cen- 
tury, year, week, day, &c. we ought to use the perfect tense ; as, " Philoso- 
phers have made great discoveries in the present century ;" " He has been 
much afflicted this year ;" '' I have read the president's message this week ;" 
*' We have heard important news this morning ;" because these events occur 
red in this century, this year, this we'ek, and to-day, and still there remains 
a part of this century, year, week, and day, of which I speak. 

In general, the perfect tense may be applied wherever the action is con- 
nected with the present time, by the actual existence either c€ \h^ author 
of the work, though it may have been performed many centuries ago ; but 
if neither the author nor the work now remains, the perfect tense ought not 
to be employed. Speaking of priests in general, we may say, " They have, 
in all ages, claimed great powers ;" because the general order of the priest- 
hood still exists ; but we cannot properly say, *' The Druid priests hUve 
claimed great powers ;" because that order is now extinct. We ought, there- 
fore, to say, '' The Druid priests claimed great powers." 

The following examples may sei-ve still farther to illustrate the proper use 
and application of the tenses. '^ My brother has recently been to Philadel- 
phia." It should be, " was recently at Philadelphia ;" because the adverb 
recently refers to a time completely past, without any allusion to the present 
time. " Charles is grown considerably since I have seen him the last time." 
Corrected, " Charles has grown, since I saiu him," &c. ** Payment was at 
length made, but no reason assigned for its being so long postponed." Cor- 
rected, " for its having been so long postponed." " They were arrived an 
hour before we reached the city :" — " They had arrived." 

^' The workmen will complete the building at the time I take possession 
of it." It should be, '* will have completed the building," &c. '* This curious 
piece of workmanship was preserved, and shown to strangers for more than 
fifty years past :" — '' has been preserved, and been shown to strangers," &c. 
" I had rather write than beg :"-—'< I would rather write than beg." 

" On the morrovsr, because he would have known the certainty whereof 
Paul was accused of the Jews, he loosed him from his bands." It ought to 
be, ** because he would know ; or, being willing to know,^^ &c. " The blind 
man said, * Lord, that I might receive my sight ;' " ^' If by any means I might 
attain unto the resurrection of the dead." In both these examples, may 
would be preferable to might. " I feared that I should have lost the parcel, 
before I arrived :" — " that I should lose." " It would have afforded me no 
satisfaction, if I could perform it." It ought to be, " if I could have perform- 
ed it ;" or, " It would afford me no satisfaction, if I could perform it." " This 
dedication may serve for almost any book that has, is, or shall be published:" 
— *' that has been, or will be published." 

4. In order to employ the two tenses of the infinitive mood 
with propriety, particular attention should be paid to the meaning 
of what we express. 

Verbs expressive of hope, desire, intention, or command, ought 
to be followed by the present tense of the Infinitive mood, 

" Last week I intended to have written," is improper. The intention of 
\iTiting was then present with me ; and, therefore, the construction should 
be, '^ I intended to writs." The following examples are also inaccurate ; ^' I 
found him better than I expected to have found him ;" " My pui-pose w^as, 
after spending ten months more in commerce, to have withdraion my wealth 
to another countiy. They should be, '' expeiJted to find him ;" '' to withdraw 
my wealth." 

*' This 18 a book which proves itself to be written by the person who«it> 



FALSE SYNTAX. 195 

name it bears.' It ought to be " which proves itself to have been written,^^ Slg. 
*' To ?ee him would have afforded me pleasure all my life." Corrected, " To 
have seen him ;" or, '* To see him would afford me pleasure," &c. " The 
arguments were sufficient to have satisfied all who heard thern :" — " were 
sufficient to satisfy. ^^ " History painters would have found it difficult to have 
invented such a species of beings :" — ^' to invent such a species." 

5. General and immutable truths ought to be expressed in the 
'present tense. 

Instead of saying, " He did not know that eight and twenty were equal to 
twenty and eight ;" " The preacher said very audibly, that whatever was 
useful, was good ;" " My opponent would not believe, that virtue was always 
advantageous;" The constructions should be, '' are equal to twenty ;'* 
" whatever is useful, is good ;" " virtue is always advantageous." 

EXAMPLES IN FALSE SYNTAX PROMISCUOUSLY 

ARRANGED. 

We adore the Divine Being, he who is from eternity to eternity. 

On these causes depend all the happiness or misery which 
exist among men. 

The enemies who we have most to fear, are those of our own 
hearts. 

Is it me or him who you requested to go ? 

Though great has been his disobedience and his folly, yet if he 
sincerely acknov/ledges his misconduct, he shall be forgiven. 

There were, in the metropolis, much to amuse them. 

By exercising of our memories, they are improved. 

The property of my friend, I mean his books and furniture, 
were wholly consumed. 

Affluence might give us respect in the eyes of the vulgar, but 
will not recommend us to the wise and good. 

The cares of this world, they often choke the growth of virtue 

They that honor me, I will honor ; and them that despise me, 
shall be lightly esteemed. 

I intended to have called last week, but could not. 

The fields look freshly and gayly since the rain. 

The book is printed very neat, and on fine wove paper. 

I have recently been in Washington, where I have seen Gen. 
Andrew Jackson, he who is now president. 

Take the two first, and, if you please, the three last. 

The Chinese wall is thirty foot high. 

It is an union supported by an hypothesis, merely. 

I have saw him who you wrote to ; and he would have came 
back with me, if he could. 

Not one in fifty of those who call themselves deists, understand 
the nature of the religion which they reject. 

If thou studiest diligently, thou will become learned. 

Education is not attended to properly in Spain. 



196 FALSE SYNTAX, 

He know'd it was his duty ; and he ought, therefoie, to do it. 

He has little more of the great man besides the title. 

Richard acted very independent on the occasion. 

We have done no more than it was our duty to have done. 

The time of my friend entering on business, soon arrived. 

His speech is the most perfect specimen I ever saw. 

Calumny and detraction are sparks which, if you do not blow 
they will go out of themselves. 

Those two authors have each of them their merit. 
Reasons whole pleasure, all the joys of sense, 
Lies in three words, health, peace, and competence. 

A great mass of rocks thrown together by the hand of nature 
with wildness and confusion, strike the mind with more grandeur, 
than if they were adjusted to one another with the accuratest 
symmetry. 

A lampoon or a satire do not carry in them robbery or murder. 

The side A, with the sides B and C, compose the triangle. 

If some persons opportunities were never so favorable, they 
would be too indolent to improve. 

It is reported that the governor will come here to-morrow. 

Beauty and innocence should be never separated. 

Extravagance and folly may reduce you to a situation where 
you will have much to fear and little to hope. 

Not one in fifty of our modern infidels are thoroughly versed 
in their knowledge of the Scriptures. 

Virtue and mutual confidence is the soul of friendship. Where 
these are wanting, disgust or hatred often follow little differences. 

An army present a painful sight to a feeling mind. 

To do good to them that hate us, and, on no occasion, to seek 
revenge, is the duty of a christian. 

The polite, accomplished libertine, is but miserable amidst all 
his pleasures : the rude inhabitant of Lapland is happier than him. 

There are principles in man, which ever have, and ever will, 
incline him to offend. 

This is one of the duties which requires great circumspection. 

They that honor me, them will I honor. 

Every church and sect have opinions peculiar to themselves, 

Pericles gained such an ascendant over the minds of the Athe- 
nians, that he might be said to attain a monarchical power im 
Athens. 

ThoUj Lord, who hath permitted affliction to come upon us, shall 
deliver us from it in due time. 

That writer has given us an account of the manner in which 
Christianity has formerly been propagated among the heathens. 



FALSE SYNTAX, 197 

Thougli the measure be mysterious, it is not unworthy of your 
attention. 

In his conduct was treachery, and in his words, faithless 
professions. 

After I visited Europe, I returned to America. 

I have not, nor shall not, consent to a proposal so unjust. 

I had intended yesterday to have walked out, but I have been 
again disappointed. 

Five and eight makes thirteen ; five from eight leaves three. 

If he goes to Saratoga next week, it will make eight times that 
he has visited that renowned watering place. 

I could not convince him, that a forgiving disposition was 
nobler than a revengeful one. I consider the first, one of the 
brightest virtues that ever was or can be possessed by man. 

The college consists of one great, and several smaller edifices. 

He would not believe that honesty was the best policy. 

The edifice was erected sooner than I expected it to have been. 

Surely, goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my 
life; and I will dwell in the house of the Lord for ever. 

K a man have a hundred sheep, and one of them be gone 
astray, doth he not leave the ninety and nine, <fec. ? 

He might have completed his task sooner, but he could not do 
it better. 

The most ignorant and the most savage tribes of men, when 
they have looked round on the earth, and on the heavens, could 
not avoid ascribing their origin to some invisible designing cause, 
and felt a propensity to adore their Creator. 



CRITICAI. NOTE§ A]¥i> 0B§5:iiTAT10i\§. 

'Observation 1. The following absurd phrases so common in the 
sacred desk and elsewhere, should be carefully avoided by all who re- 
gard common sense : — '* Sing the two first and three last verses." Just 
as if there could be more than one first and one last. There may be a 
first twOj a second two^ &c. ; ^^ a first tJiree^ a second tliree^ a last three^ 
^' Within the two last centuries ;" '' The second syllable of the three 
first w^ords ;" " The three first of these orthoepists have no rule by which 
their pronunciation is regulated :" — ''the last two centuries;" ^^ih.Q first 
three words ;" '* tl\Q first three of these orthoepists." 

2. Adjectives should not be used to express the manner of action. 
^^The higher the river, the svjifter it flows;" "James learns easier 
than Juliet; he sees deeper into the millstone than she:" — "the more 
swiftly it flows ;" " learns more easily ; farther into the millstone." " He 
conducted the boldest of any :" — " the most boldly.'' 

It* 



198 CRITTOAL REMARKS. 



1 



3. More requires tlian after it. The following sentences are therefore 
improper: "He was more beloved, but not so much admired, as 
Cinthio ;" " Eichard is more active, but not so studious, as his compan- 
ion." The legitimate mode of supplying the ellipses in these construc- 
tions, will show their gross impropriety : thus, " He was more beloved 
as Cinthio;" "Eichard is more active as his companion," &c. 

4. Adverbs, as illustrated on page 85, are generally substitutes for 
two or more words belonging to other parts of speech. " Will you ac- 
company me to Europe next summer ?" " Te5." " Do you believe 
that the voyage will restore your health ?" " iVo." In these examples, 
the adverbs yes and no^ are substitutes for whole sentences, and, there- 
fore, do not qualify any words understood. Yes, in this instance, liter- 
ally means, " I will accompany you to Europe next summer ;^^ and no, 
" / do not believe that the voyage ivill restore my health.'' Many other 
adverbs are often employed in a similar manner. 

^^ Firstly'' is often improperly used instead of the adverb first ; "a 
good deal J' instead of, much^ or, a great deal. 

5. A nice distinction should be observed in the use of sucli and so. 
The former may be employed in expressing quality ; the latter, in ex- 
pressing a degree of the quality ; as, " Such a temper is seldom found;" 
" S)0 bad a temper is seldom found." In the following examples, so 
should be used instead of such : " He is such an extravagant young 
man, that I cannot associate with him;" "I never before saw such 
large trees." 

The affected use of cardinal, instead of ordinal numbers, ought not 
to be imitated. "On ^SigQ forty -five ;" "Look at page nineteen;" — 
forty-fifth^ nineteenth. 

6. In the choice and application of prepositions, particular regard 
should be paid to their meaning as estabhshed by the idiom of our 
language and the best usage. "In my proceedings, I have been 
actuated from the conviction, that I was supporting a righteous cause ;" 
" He should have profited from those golden precepts ;" " It is con- 
nected to John with the conjunction and ;" " Aware that there is, in 
the minds of many, a strong predilection in favor of established 
usages;" "He was made much on at Argos;" "They are resolved of 
going ;" " The rain has been falling of a long time ;" " It is a work 
deserving of encouragement." These examples may be corrected 
thus, " actuated by the conviction ;" ^^by those golden precepts ;" "5?/ 
the conjunction and;" "predilection for ;" " much of at Argos;" " 07i 
going ;" "falling a long time ;" " deserving encouragement." 

7. The preposition to is used before nouns of place, where they fol- 
low verbs or participles of motion ; as, " I went to Washington." 
But at is employed after the verb to be ; as, " I have been at Wash- 
ington;" "He has been to N'ew York, at home," &c. are improper. 
The preposition in is set before countries, cities, and large towns ; " He 
hves in France, in London, in Philadelphia, in Eochester." But be- 
fore single houses, and cities and villages vv^hich are in distant countries, 
a?5 is commonly used ; as, "He lives at Park-place;" "She resides a# 
Yincennes." People in the northern states may say, " They live in 
New Orleans, or, at New Orleans." 



CRITICAL REMARKS. 199 

8. Passive agents to verbs in the infinitive mood, should not be em- 
ployed as active agents. The following are solecisms : ^^ This house to 
let;" "Horses and carriages to let;" '^ Congress has much business to 
perform this session ;" because the agents, house^ horses and carriages^ 
and business^ which are really passive^ are, according to these construc- 
tions, rendered as active. The expressions should be, '^ This hojse to 
he let :" " Horses and carriages to he let ;" ^'- much business to he per- 
formed''' 

9. Ambiguity. — ^* Xothing is more to be desired than wisdom." Not 
literally correct, for wisdom is certainly more to be desired than nothing ; 
but as a figurative expression, it is well established and unexceptionable. 

'' A crow is a large black bird :" — a large, hIacJc — bird. 

'^ I saw a horse — fly through the window :" — I saw a horsefly. 

" I saw a ship ghding under full sail through a spy glass." I saw, 
through a spy glass, a sliip ghding under full sail. 

^^ One may see how the world goes with half an eye." One may see 
with half an eye, how the world goes. 

'' A great stone, that I happened to find, after a long search, by the 
sea shore, served me for an anchor." This arrangement of the mem- 
bers and circumstances of this sentence, confines the speaker's search to 
the seoy shore ; whereas, he meant, '^ A large stone^ luhich^ after a long 
search, I happened to find hy the sea shore^ served me for an anchor." 

^'' I shall only notice those called personal pronouns." I shall notice 
only those called personal pronouns. 

10. Tautology. — Avoid words which add nothing to the sense ; 
such as, '^ Now extant, free gratis, slow mope, cold snow, a hot sun, a 
tiowing stream, a dull blockhead, wise sages." ^' I am just going to go 
there ;" I am ahout to go. 

11. Absurdities and Improprieties. — ^' I can learn him many 
things." It ought to be, ^' I can teach him." To harn^ is to acquire 
or receive information ; to teach^ means to communicate it 

^' I don't think it is so." You do thinh^ that it is not so. 

Ever J always. '-'I have ever been of this mind." I have always 
been. Ever and always are not synonymous. Ever refers to one in- 
definite period of time ; as, '' If he ever become rich:" always means 
at all tiraes. 

Excuse^ pardon. The former signifies to release from an obhgation 
which refers to the future ; the latter, to forgive a neglect or crime that 
is past. ^' Excuse me for neglecting to call yesterday :" pardon me. 

Rememher^ recollect. We rememher a thing which we retain in our 
mind ; we recollect it, when, though havmg gone from the mind, we 
have power to call it back. 

Defect^ deficiency, A thing which is incomplete m any of its parts, 
is defective ; a total absence of the thing, is deficiency. 

This subject will be resumed in the appendix to this work. 



zoo PROSODY. 

Prosody treats of the modulations of the voice 
according to the usages of the language we speak, 
and the sentiments we wish to express : hence, in 
its most extensive sense, it comprises all the laws of 
elocution. 

Prosody is commonly divided into two parts : the 
first teaches the true pronunciation of words, com- 
prising accent^ quantity^ emphasis^ pause^ and tone ; 
and the second, the laws of versification. 

Accent, Accent is the laying of a peculiar stress of the voice 
on a particular letter or syllable in a word, that it may be better 
heard than the rest, or distinguished from them ; as, in the word 
'presume^ the stress of the voice must be on the letter w, and the 
second syllable, sume^ which syllable takes the accent. 

Every word of more syllables than one, has one accented syl- 
lable. For the sake of euphony or distinctness in a long word, 
we frequently give a secondary accent to another syllable besides 
the one which takes the principal accent; as, Hes ti mo' nV al, 
a han' don Hng, 

Quantity. The quantity of a syllable is that time which is 
occupied in pronouncing it. It is considered as long or short. 

A vowel or syllable is long, when the accent is on the vowel ; 
which causes it to be slowly joined in pronunciation with the fol 
lowing letters ; as, " Fall, bale, mood, house, feature." 

A syllable is short, when the accent is on the consonant ; which 
causes the vowel to be quickly joined to the succeeding letter ; 
"as, ant, bonnet, hunger." 

A long syllable generally requires double the time of a short 
one in pronouncing it ; thus, " mate" and " note" should be pro- 
nounced as slowly again as " mat" and "not." 

Emphasis. By emphasis is meant a stronger and fuller sound 
of the voice, by v/hich we distinguish some word or words on 
which we design to lay particular stress, and to show how they affect 
the rest of the sentence. Sometimes the emphatic words must be 
distinguished by a particular tone of voice, as well as by a greater 
stress. 

Emphasis will be more fully explained mider the head of Elocution. 

Pauses. Pauses or rests, in speaking and reading, are a total 
cessation of the voice during a perceptible, and, in many cases, a 
measurable space of time. 



PtJNCTUATION. Wl 



Tones, Tones are different both from emphasis and pauses ; con- 
sisting in the modulation of the voice, or the notes or variations of 
sound which we employ in the expression of our sentiments. 

Emphasis affects particular words and phrases ; but tones affect 
sentences, paragraphs, and sometimes a whole discourse. 



PUI¥CTUATI@M. 
Punctuation is the art of dividing written com- 
position into sentences or parts of sentences, by 
points or stops, in order to mark the different pauses 
which the sense and an accurate pronunciation re- 
quire. 

The Comma represents the shortest pause ; the Semicolon, a 
pause double that of the commia ; the Colon, double that of the 
semicolon ; and the Period, double that of the colon. 

Punctuation is a modem art. The ancients were entirely unacquainted 
with the use of points ; and wrote, not only without any distinction of mem 
bers and periods, but also without any distinction of words. This custon? 
continued till the year 360 before Chnst. How the ancients read their 
works, w^ritten in this manner, it is not easy to conceive. After the practice 
of joining words together had ceased, notes of distinction were placed at the 
end of every word. This practice continued a considerable time. 

As it appears that the present usage of points did not take place while 
manusciipts and monumental inscriptions were the only known methods of 
conveying knowledge, we must conclude, that it was introduced vvdth the 
art of printing. The introduction was, however, gradual : all the points did 
not appear at once. The colon, semicolon, and note of admiration, were 
produced some time after the others. The whole set, as they are now used, 
became established, when leamhig and refinement had made considerable 
progi'ess. 

As the rules of punctuation are founded altogether on the gram- 
matical construction of sentences, their application pre-supposes, 
on the part of the student, a knowledge of Syntax. Although 
they admit oi exceptions, and require a continual exercise of 
judgment and literary taste in applying them properly, they are of 
great utility, and justly m.erit our particular attention. 

The great importance of acquiring a thorough knowledge of 
punctuation, and of attending strictly to the application of its rules, 
is e.stablished by the single fact, that tlie meaning of a sentence is 
often totally perverted by the omission or misapplication of points. 
To illustrate the correctness of this remark, numerous examples 
might be selected. The following border on the ridiculous : " Mr. 
Jared Hurton having gone to sea his wife, desires the prayers of this 
church ;" ** Tryon, who escaped from the jail on Friday last, is 23 



202 PUNCTUATION. 

years of age, has sandy hair, light eyes, thin visage, with a short 
nose turned up about six feet high, &c." Corrected ; " Mr. Jared 
Hurton having gone to sea, his wife desires the prayers of this 
church ;" " thin visage, with a short nose turned up, about six feet 
high, &c.'^ 

Before one enters upon the study of punctuation, it is necessary 
for him to understand what is meant by an adjunct, a simple sen- 
fence , and a compound sentence. 

An adjunct or imperfect phrase contains no assertion, or does 
not amount to a proposition or sentence ; as, " Therefore ;" " stu- 
dious of praise ;" " in the pursuit of commerce. '' — For the defi- 
nition of a sentence, and a compound sentence, turn to page 119. 

When two or more adjuncts are connected with the verb in the 
same manner, and by the same preposition or conjunction, the 
sentence is compound, and may be resolved into as many simple 
ones as there are adjuncts ; as, " They have sacrificed their health 
and fortune, at the shrine of vanity, pride, and extravagance,^' 
But when the adjuncts are connected with the verb in a different 
manner, the sentence is simple ; as, " Grass of an excellent quaL 
ity, is produced in great ahmdance in the northern regions of our 
country." 

COMMA. 

RULE 1. The members of a simple sentence should not, in 
general, be separated by a comma ; as, " Every part of matter 
swarms with living creatures.'^ 

Exercises in Punctuation. — Idleness is the great fomenter of all corrup- 
tions in the human heart. The friend of order has made half his way to 
virtue. All finery is a sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. When a simple sentence is long, and the nominative 
is accompanied with an inseparable adjunct of importance, it may 
admit a comma immediately before the verb ; as, " The good taste 
of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of 
the English language ;" " Too many of the pretended friendships 
of youth, are mere combinations in pleasure." 

Exercises. — The indulgence of a harsh disposition is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally indifferent to praise or censure is a real defect 
in character. The intermixture of evil m human society serves to exerci»e 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. When the connexion of the different parts of a sim- 
pie sentence, is interrupted by an adjunct of importance, the ad- 
junct must be distinguished by a comma before and after it; as. 
" His work is, in many respects, very imperfect. It is, therefore, 
not much approved. '^ But when these interruptions are slight 



PTTNCTUATION. 203 

and unimportant, it is better to omit the comma ; as, " Flatters- 
is certainly pernicious;" "There is surely a pleasure in benefi- 
cence." 

Exercises. — Charity like the sun brightens all its objects. Gentleness is 
in truth the gi'eat avenue to mutual enjoyment. You too have your failings. 
Humility ana knowledge with poor apparel excel pride and ignorance under 
costly attire. The best men often experience disappointments. Advice 
should be seasonably administered. No assumed behavior can always hide 
the real character. 

RULE 4. The nominative ease independent, and nouns in ap- 
position when accompanied with adjuncts, must be distinguished 
hy commas ; as, " My son, give me thy heart ;" " Dear Sir, I 
write to express my gratitude for your many kindnesses ;" "I am 
obliged to you, my friends, for your many favors;" ''Paul, the 
apostle, o^ the Gentiles, was eminent for his zeal and knowledge ;" 
" The huiterfly, child of the summer, flutters in the sun." 

But if two nouns in apposition are unattended vrith adjuncts, or 
if they form only a proper name, they should not be separated ; 
as, " Panl the apostle, suffered martyrdom ;" " The statesman 
Jefferson, wrote the declaration of Independence." 

Exercises. — Lord thou hast been our dwelling place in all generations. 
Continue my dear child to make virtue thy chief stxidy. Canst thou expect 
thou betrayer of innocence to escape the hand of vengeance ? Death the 
fiing of tenxjrs chose a prime minister. Hope the balm of life sootlis us 
under every misfortune. Confucius the great Chinese philosopher was emi- 
nently good as well as wfse. The patriarch Joseph is an illustrious example 
of true piety. 

RULE 5. The nominative case absolute and the infinitive mood 
absolute with their adjuncts, a participle with words depending 
on it, and, generally, any imperfect phrase which may be resolved 
into a simple sentence, must be separated from the rest of the 
sentence by commxas ; as, " His father dying, he succeeded to the 
estate;" '' To confess the truth, I was in fault;" "The king, ap- 
proving the plan, put it in execution ;" " He, having finished his 
academical course, has returned home, to prosecute his professional 
studies.^' 

Exercises. — Peace of mind being secured we may smile at misfortune. 
To enjoy present pleasure he sacrificed his futm^e ease and reputation. Hia 
talents fonned for great enterprises could not fail of rendering him conspic- 
uous. The path of piety and virtue pursued N^dth a iirm and constant spirit 
v\dli assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family assem- 
bled under the eye of one common Father. 

RULE 6. A compound sentence must be resolved into simple 
ones by placing commas between its members ; as, " The decay, 
the waste, and the dissolution of a plant, may affect our spirits, 
and suir^est a train of serious reflections.' 



204 PUNCTUATION. 

Three or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adierbs, 
connected by conjunctions, expressed or understood, must be sep- 
arated by commas; as, " The husband, wife,* and children, f suf- 
fered extremely ;" ^' In a letter, we may advise, exhort, comfort, 
request, and discuss ;" " David was a brave, wise, and pious man ;' 
" A man, fearing, serving, and loving his Creator, lives for a noble 
purpose ;'^ " Success generally depends on acting prudently, stead- 
ily, and vigorously, in what we undertake." 

Two or more nouns, verbs, adjectives, participles, or adverbs, 
occurring in the same construction, with their conjunctions under- 
stood, must be separated by commas ; as, " Reason, virtue, an- 
swer one great aim ;" " Virtue supports in adversity, moderates in 
prosperity;" "Plain, honest truth, needs no artificial covering;" 
" We are fearfully, wonderfully framed." 

Exercises. — We have no reason to complain of the lot of man nor of the 
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body depresses the 
understanding deadens the moral feelings of the heart and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit pres*imption and obstinacy blast the prospects of many a youth. 
He is alternately supported by his father his uncle and his elder brother. 
The m.an of, virtue and honor will be trusted relied upon and esteemed. 
Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited tiinorons and base. An upright 
mmd will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true lovely honest 
and of good report. Habits of reading writing and thinking are the indis- 
pensable qualifications of a good student. The great business of life is to be 
employed in doing justly loving mercy and v/alking humbly with our Creator. 
To live soberly righteously and piously comprehends the whole of our duty. 

In our health life possessions connexions pleasures there are causes of 

* The correctness and importance of this rule appear to be so ob^^ous, as 
to render it not a little surprising, that any writer, possessing the least degree 
of rhetorical taste, should reject it. I am bold to affirm, that it is observed 
by every correct reader and speaker ; and yet, strange as it may seem, it is 
generally violated by those printers who punctuate by the ear, and all others 
who are influenced by their pernicious example ; thus, " The head, the heart 
and the hands, should be constantly and actively employed in doing good." 
Why do they not omit the comma where the conjunction is understood ? It 
would be doing no greater violence to the principles of elocution ; thus, 
" The head the heart and the hands, should be, &c." or thus, '' The head tho 
heart, and the hands, should be employed," &c. Who does not perceivo 
that the latter pause, where the conjunction is expressed, is as necessary aa 
the former, where^ the conjunction is understood ? And, since this is the 
case, what fair objection can be made to the following method of pimctua- 
tion ? " The head, the heart, and the hands, should be constantly and ac- 
dvely employed in doing good ;" " She is a woman, gentle, sensible, weU- 
educated, and religious." 

t As a considerable pause ia pronunciation is necessary between the last 
noun and the verb, a comma should be inserted to denote it ; but as no pause 
is allowable between the last adjective and the noun, or between the last 
adverb and the verb, the comma, in such instances, is properly omitted ; thus, 
*' David was a brave, w^ise, and pious man." 



PUNCTUATION. 205 

decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly execute promptly. An 
idle trifling society is near akin to such as is corrupting. This unhappy per- 
son had been seriously affectionately admonished but in vain. 

RULE 7. Comparative sentences whose members are short, 
and sentences connected with relative pronouns the meaning ol 
whose antecedents is restricted or limited to a particular sense, 
should not be separated by a comma ; as, " Wisdom is better than 
riches ;^^ " No preacher is so successful as time ;" '' He accepted 
what I had rejected ;'' '' Self-denial is the sacrijice which virtue 
must make ;" '* Subtract from many modern poets all that may 
be found in Shakspeare, and trash will remain;'* " Give it to the 
man whom you most esteem.'^ In this last example, the assertion 
is not of " man in general," but of " the man whom you most 
esteem." 

But when the antecedent is used in a general sense, a comma 
is properly inserted before the relative ; as " Man^ who is born of 
a woman, is of few days and full of trouble ;" ^' There is no charm 
in the female sex, which can supply the place of virtue." 

This rule is equally applicable to constructions in which the 
relative is understood ; as, ^' Value duly the privileges you enjoy;" 
that is, *^ privileges which you enjoy." 

Exercises. — How much better it is to get wisdom than gold ! The friend- 
ships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat 
what is set before you. They who excite envy will easily incur censure. A 
mail who is of a detracting spirit will misconstrue the most innocent words 
thct can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our complaints 
of the world are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream which reflects every object in 
its list proportion and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected civility which 
Bpmgs from a g<5ntle mind there is an incomparable charm. The Lord 
wlnm I sei-ve is eternal. This is the man we saw yesterday. 

HULE 8. When two words of the same sort, are connected by 
a conjunction expressed, they must not be separated ; as, " Liber- 
tines call religion, bigotry or superstition ;" " True worth is mod- 
est an^Z retired;" "The study of natural history, expands and 
elevates the mind ;" "Some men sin deliberately and presumptu- 
ou^y." When words are connected in pairs, the pairs only 
shald be separated ; as, " There is a natural difference between 
meit and demerit, virtue and vice, wisdom and folly ;" " Whether 
we at or drink, labor or sleep, we should be temperate." 

Bit if the parts connected by a conjunction are not short, they 
ma}be separated by a comma ; as, '' Romances mav be said to be 
miseable rhapsodies, or dangerous incentives to evil." 

Eixcises. — Idleness brings forward and nourishes many bad passions. 
Trueiriendship will at all tiraes avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health 
and iece n mo<Ierate fortune and a few fiiendwS sum up all the und "ubted 

18 



206 PUNCTUATION. *■ 

articles of temporal felicity. TiTitli is fair and artless simple and sincere 
oniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies 
and the \ngor of our minds. 

RULE 9. V/here the verb of a simple member is understood, 
a comma may, in some instances, be inserted ; as, " From law 
arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, know- 
ledge." But in others, it is better to omit the comma ; " No sta- 
tion is so high, no power so great, no character so unblemished, as 
to exempt men from the attacks of rashness, malice, and envy.'' 
Exercises. — As a companion he was severe and satirical ; as a friend cap- 
tious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms in summer there 
will be no beauty and in autumn no fruit. So if youth be trifled away with- 
out improvement manhood will be contemptible and old age miserable. 

RULE 10. When a simple member stands as the object of a 
preceding verb, and its verb may be changed into the infinitive 
mood, the comma is generally omitted ; as, " I suppose he is at 
rest;^' changed, "I suppose Jmji to he at rest.^^ 

But when the verb to he is followed by a verb in the infinitive 
m.ood, which, by transposition, may be made the nominative case 
to it, the verb to he is generally separated from the infinitive by 
a comma ; as, " The most obvious remedy is, to witlidraio from all 
associations with had men y" " The first and most obvious remedy 
against the infection, is, to withdraw from all associations with bad 
men.'^ 

Exercises. — They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was tlie 
man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is to be condemnsd 
by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure is to be con- 
demned by our own hearts. 

NOTES. 

1. When a conjunction is separated by a phrase or member from the mem- 
ber to which it belongs, such intervening phrase appears to require a comna 
at each extremity ; as, '' They set out early, and, before the close of the diy, 
aiTived at the destined place." This rule, however, is not generally foUoved 
by our best v^rriters ; as, *' If thou seek the Lord, he will be found of th'e ; 
hut if thou forsake him, he will cast thee off for ever ;" '^ But if the p.rts 
connected are not short, a comma may be inserted." 

2. Several verbs succeeding each other in the infinitive mood, and having 
a common dependance, may be divided by commas ; as, " To relieve the 
indigent, to comfort the afflicted, to protect the innocent, to reward thcde- 
8er^^ng, are humane and noble employments." 

3. A remarkable expression, or a short observ^ation, somewhat in theorra 
of a quotation, may be properly marked w^ith a comma; as, *' It huts a 
man's pnde to say, /(io not know ;" '' Plutarch calls lying, the vice of sloes. ^^ 

4. When words are placed in opposition to each other, or withome 
marked variety, they must be distinguished by a comma ; as, 

'* Tho' deep, yet clear ; tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 

" Strong, without rage ; without o^ erjiotoing, full.''^ 
** Good CTien, in this frail, imperfect state, are often found, not only inmion 
with, but in opposition to, the views ^xid conduct of each other." 



PUNCTUATION. OT7 

Sometimes when the word with which the last preposition agrees, is sin- 
gle, the comma may be omitted ; as, " Many states were in aJb'ance witkf and 
mider the protection of Rome." 

The same rule and resti*ictions apply, when two or more nouns refer to the 
same preposition ; as, " He was composed both under the threatening, and 
at the approach, of a cmel and lingering death ;" *' He was not only the 
Mng, but the father of his people." 

5. The words, '' as, thus, nay, so, hence, again, first, secondly, fomierly, 
now, lastly, once more, above all, on the contrary, in the next place, in short," 
and all other words and phrases ol a similar kind, must generally be separa- 
ted from the context by a comma ; as, " Remember thy best friend ; former- 
ly, the supporter of thy infancy ; now, the guardian of thy youth ;" '* He 
feared want; hence, he overv^alued riches ;" ^' So, if youth be trifled away," 
&c. " Again, we must, have food and clothing ;" '^ Finally, let us conclude.^' 

The foregoing rules and examples are sufficient, it is presumed, 
to suggest to the learner, in ail ordinary instances, the proper 
place for inserting the comma ; but in applying these rules, great 
regard must be paid to the length and meaning of the clauses, and 
the proportion which they bear to one another. 

SEI^SlCOSiON. 

The semicolon is used for dividing a compound sentence into 
two or more parts, not so closely connected as those which are 
separated by a comma, nor yet so little dependant on each other, 
as those which are distinguished by a colon. 

RULE 1. When the preceding member of the sentence does 
not of itself give complete sense, but depends on the following 
clause, and sometimes when the sense of that member would be 
complete without the concluding one, the semicolon is used ; as in 
the following examples : '^ As the desire of approbation, when it 
works according to reason, improves the amiable part of our spe- 
cies ; so, nothing is more destructive to them, when it is governed 
by vanity and folly ;" " The wise man is happy, when he gains his 
own approbation ; the fool, when he gains the applause of those 
around him ;^' " Straws swim upon the surface ; but pearls lie at 
the bottom." 

Exercises. — The path of tiTith is a plain and safe path that of falsehood a 
perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship hell of - 
fierceness and animosity. As there is a v/orldly happmess which God per- 
ceives to be no other than disguised misery as there are worldly honors 
which iu his estimation are reproach so there is a worldly wisdom which in 
his sight is foolishness. 

But all subsists by elemental strife 

And passions are the elements of life. 

RULE 2. When an example is introduced to illustrate a rule 
or proposition, the semicolon may be used before the conjunction 
a&' ; as in the following instance: Prepositions govern the object 
ive case ; as, " She gave the book to him." 



208 PUNCTUATION. 

Note. In instances like the foregoing, many respectable punctuisis em- 
ploy the coloii, instead of the semicolon. 

The Colon is used to divide a sentence into two or more parts 
less connected than those which are separated by a semicolon ; 
but not so independent as separate, distinct sentences. 

RULE 1. When a member of a sentence is complete in itself, 
but followed by some supplemental remark, or farther illustration 
of the subject, the colon may be properly employed ; as, " Nature 
felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequences of. 
guilt* the gospel revealed the plan of divine interposition and 
aid.'' " Great works are performed, not by strength, but by per- 
severance : yonder palace was raised by single stones ; yet you 
see its height and spaciousness." 

Exercises. — The three great enemies to tranqaillity are vie*? superstition 
and idleness vice which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions 
superstition which fills it with imaginary terrors idleness which loads it with 
tediousness and disgust. 

When we look forw^ard into the year which is beginning what do we be- 
hold there ? All my brethren is a blank to our view a dark unknown pre- 
sents itself. 

RULE 2. When a semicolon has preceded, or more than one, 
and a still greater pause is necessary, in order to mark the con- 
necting or concluding sentiment, the colon should be applied ; as, 
*^ A divine legislator, uttering his voice from heaven ; an almighty 
governor, stretching forth his arm to punish or reward ; informing 
us of perpetual rest prepared for the righteous hereafter, and of 
indignation and wrath awaiting the wicked : these are the consid- 
erations which overawe the world, which support integrity, and 
check guilt.'' 

When a sentence is complete, and so independent as not to be 
connected with the one which follows it, a period should be inserted 
at its close ; as, " Fear God." " Honor the patriot." " Respect 
virtue." 

In the use of many of the pauses, there is a diversity of prac- 
tice among our best writers and grammarians. Compound sen- 
tences connected by conjunctions, are sometimes divided by the 
period ; as, *' Recreations, though they may be of an innocent 
kind, require steady government to keep them within a due and 
limited province. But such as are of an irregular and vicious 
nature, are not to be governed, but to be banished from every 
well-regulated mind." 

The period should follow every abbreviated word ; as, " A, D. 
N, B. U. S. Va, Md. Viz. Col. Mr." 



PUNCTUATION. 209 

The Dash, though often used improperly by hasty and incohe- 
rent writers, may be introduced with propriety, where the sentence 
breaks off abruptly ; where a significant pause is required ; or 
where there is an unexpected turn in the sentiment ; as, " If thou 
art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! how degra- 
ded !" " If acting conformably to the will of our Creator ; — if 
pi-omoting the welfare of mankind around us ; — if securing our 
own happiness ; — are objects of the highest moment : then we are 
loudly called upon to cultivate and extend the great interests of 
religion and virtue." 

A dash following a stop, denotes that the pause is to be greater 
than if the stop were alone ; and when used by itself, requires a 
pause of such length as the sense only '^rjp determine. 

" Here lies the great — False marblf*, w here ? 

"Nothing but sordid dust lies here.'' 

INTKKROOATOISY POIWr. 

The note of interrogation is used at the end of an interrogative 
sentence; as, "Who adorned the heavens with such exquisite 
beauty ?" 

Note. The interrogative point should not be employed in cases where \t 
is only said, that a question has been asked : as, " The Cyprians asked me, 
why I wept," 

EXCIiAITlATORY POINT. 

The note of exclamation is applied to expressions of sudden 
emotion, surprise, joy, grief, &;c. and sometimes to invocations 
and addresses ; as, " How much vanity in the pursuits of men !" 
" What is more amiable than virtue !" " My friend ! this conduct 
amazes me !'' " Hear me, O Lord ! for thy loving kindness is great !'' 

PARENTHESIS. 

A parenthesis is a clause containing some useful remark, which 
may be omitted without injuring the grammatical construction ; 
as, " To gain a posthumous reputation, is to save a few letters 
(for what is a name besides ?) from oblivion." 

'^ Know then this truth, (enough for man to know,) 
"Virtue alone is happiness below." 
Note. The parenthesis generally denotes a moderate depression of the 
voice ; and, as the ^larenthetical marks do not supply the place of a point, 
the clause should be accompanied with every stop which the sense would 
require, if the parenthetical characters were nt^t used. It ought to termi- 
nate with the same kind of point which the member has that precedes it , as, 
'' He loves nobly, (I speak of friendship,) w^ho is not jealous when be has 
partners of love." 

" Or why so lo»g (in life if long can be) 
" Lent Heav'n a parent to the poor and me ?" 
18* 



210 VEHSTFICATION. 

Parentheses, however, containing interrogations or exclamations, foiin an 
exception to this rule ; as, '* If I grant his request, (and who could refuse 
it ?) I shall secure his esteem and attachment." 

ai*€5Sti^oi*ii:e ani> qxtotation. 

The Apostrophe is used to abbreviate a word, and also to mark 
the possessive case of a noun ; as, " His, for ii is; ilio,^ for though; 
o^er, for over;^' " A mart's poverty.' 

A Quotation marks a sentence taken in the author's own lan- 
guage ; as, " The proper study of mankind is man.'' 

When an author represents a person as speaking, the language 
of that person should be designated by a quotation ; as, At my 
coming in, he said, '' You and the physician are come too late." 
A quotation contained w^tliin another, should be distinguished by 
two single commas ;-' as, " Always remember this ancient maxim : 
*Know thyself.'" 

It is proper to begin with a capital, 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. Proper names, the appellations of the Deity, &g. ; as, " James, 
Cincinnati, the Andes, Huron ;" '' God, Jehovah, the Almighty, 
the Supreme Being, Providence, the Holy Spirit." 

8. Adjectives derived from proper names, the titles of books, 
nouns which are used as the subject of discourse, the pronoun 1 
and the interjection O, and every line in poetry ; as, " American, 
Grecian, English, French; Irving's Sketch Book, Percival's Po- 
ems: I write ; Hear, O earth !" 



APPENDIX. 



YHIISIFIC ATI €ir¥. 

Poetry is the language of passion, or of enlivened imagination. 

Versification, in English, is the harmonious arrangement of a 
particular number and variety of accented and unaccented sylla- 
bles, according to particular laws. 

Rhyme is tlie correspondence of the sound of the last syllable 
in one line, to the sound of the last syllable in another ; as, 

** O'er the glad waters of the dark-blue sea^ 

** Our thoughts as boundless and our souls as free " 

Blank Verse consists in poetical thoughts expressed in regular 
numbers, but without the correspondence of sound at the end oi 
the lines which constitutes rhyme. ^ 

Poetical Feet consist in a particular arrangement and con- 
nexion of a number of accented and unaccented syllables. 



RHETORIC. 211 

They are called feet, because it is by their aid that the voice, aa 
it were, steps along through the verse in a measured pace. 

All poetical feet consist either of two, or of three syllables ; and are re- 
ducible to eight kinds ; four of two syllables, and four of three, as foUovrs 

Dissyllable. Trisyllable. 

A Trochee - u A Dactyle - u u 

An Iambus u - An Amphibrach u - u 

A Spondee - - An Anapaest k> yj - 

A Pyrrhic kj kj A Tribrach \j kj ^ 

A Trochee has the first syllable accented, and the last unac- 
cented ; as, Hateful, pettish : 

Restless mortals toil for naught. 
An Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the last ac- 
cented ; as, Betray, consist : 

The seas shall waste, the skies In smoke decay. 
A Dactyle has the first syllable accented, and the two latter 
unaccented ; as, Laborer, possible : 

From the low pleasures of this fallen nature. 
An Anapaest has the first two syllables unaccented, and the 
last accented ; as. Contravene, acquiesce : 

At the close of the day when the hamlet is still. 
A Spondee ; as. The pale moon : a Pyrrhic ; as, on the tall 
tree : an Amphibrach ; as, Delightful : a Tribrach ; as. Nu- 
merable. 



RHETOKIC. 

GRAMMAR instructs us how to express our thoughts correctly. 
Rhetoric teaches us to express them with force and elegance. 

The former is generally confined to the correct application of words in con- 
structing single sentences. The latter treats of the proper choice of words, 
of the happiest method of constructing sentences, of their most advantage- 
ous arrangement in forming a discourse, and of the various kinds and quali- 
ties of composition. The principles of rhetoric are piincipally based on 
those unfolded and illustrated in the science of grammar. Hence, an ac- 
quaintance with the latter, and, indeed, with the liberal arts, is a prerequi- 
eite to the study of rhetoric and belles-lettres. 

COMl»OSITS€>N. 

It may be laid down as a maxim of eternal truth, that good 
sense is the foundation of all good writing. One who under- 
stands a subject well, will scarcely v/rite ill upon it. 

Rhetoric, or the art of persuasion, requires in a writer, the union of good 
sense, and a lively and chaste imagination. It is, then, her province to teach 
him to embellish his thoughts with elegant and appropriate language, vivitl 
imagery and an agi^eeable variety of expression. It ought to be his aim, 
'' To mark the point where sease and dulness meet" 



212 RHETOR [C. 

Style is the peculiar manner in which we express our concep- 
tions by means of language. It is a picture of the ideas which 
rise in our minds, and of the order in which they are produced. 

The qualities of a good style, may be ranked under two heads, 
perspicuity and ornament. 

Perspicuity, which is considered the fundamental quality of a 
good style, claims attention, first, to single words and phrases ; 
and, s-econdly, to the construction of sentences. When consid- 
ered with respect to words and phrases, it requires these three 
qualities, purity^ propriety, and precision. 

Purity of language consists in the use of such words and such 
constructions as belong to the language which we speak, in oppo- 
sition toAYords and phrases belonging to other languages, or which 
are obsolete or new-coined, or employed without proper authority. 

Propriety is the choice of those words which the best usage 
has appropriated to the ideas which we intend to express by them. 
It implies their correct and judicious application, in opposition to 
low expressions, and to words and phrases which v/ould be less 
significant of the ideas which we wish to convey. It is the 
union of purity and propriety, which renders style graceful and 
perspicuous. 

Precision, from prcecidere, to cut off, signifies retrenching all 
superfluities, and pruning the expression in such a manner as to 
exhibit neither more nor less than an exact copy of the ideas 
intended to be conveyed. 

STMUCTUISE OF SSWTSiVC^S. 

A proper construction of sentences is of so great importance 
in every species of composition, that we cannot be too strict or 
minute in our attention to it. 

Elegance of style requires us generally to avoid many short or long sen- 
tences in succession ; a monotonous coiTespondence of one member to an- 
other ; and the commencing of a piece, section, or paragraph, with a long 
sentence. 

The qualities most essential to a perfect sentence, are TJnity^ 
Clearness, Strength, and Harmony. 

Unity is an indispensable property of a correct sentence. A 
sentence implies an arrangement of words in which only one pro- 
position is expressed. It may, indeed, consist of parts ; but 
these parts ought to be so closely bound together, as to make on 
the mind the impression, not of many objects, but of only one. 
In order to preserve this unity, the following rules may be useful. 

1. In the course of the sentence, the scene should he changed as little as 
possible. In every sentence there is some leading or governing word, which, 
il possible, ou^hr tu be continued so from the beginning to the end of it. 



STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES. 213 

The following sentence is not constructed according to this rule : " After we 
tame to anchor, they put me on shore, where I was saluted by all my fnends, 
who received me with the greatest kindTiess." In this sentence, though the 
objects are sufficiently connected, yet, by shifting so frequently the place and 
the person, the vessel, the shore, we, they, /, and who, they appear hi so dis- 
united a view, that the mind is led to wander for the sense. The sentence 
is restored to its proper unity by constructing it thus : " Having come to an- 
chor, I was put on shore, wliere I was saluted by all my friends, who re- 
ceived me with the greatest kindness." 

2. Never croicd into one sentence things which have so little connexion, that 
they would bear to be divided into two or more sentences. The violation of thia 
rule produces so unfavorable an effect, that it is safer to err rather by too 
many short sentences, than by one that is overloaded and confused. 

3. Avoid all unnecessary parentheses. 

Clearness. Ambiguity, which is opposed to clearness, may 
arise from a bad choice, or a bad arrangement of words. 

A leading rule in the arrangement of sentences, is, that those 
words or memhers most nearly related, should he placed in the sen- 
tence as near to each other as possible, so as thereby to make their 
mutual relation clearly appear. This rule ought to be observed, 

1. In the position of adverbs. " By greatness," says Mr. Addison, " I do 
not only mean the bulk of any single object, but the largeness of a whole 
view." The improper situation of the adverb only, in this sentence, renders 
it a limitation of the verb mean, whereas the author intended to have it qual- 
ify the phrase, a single object ; thus, '* By greatness, I do not mean the bulk 
of any single object only, but the largeness of a w^hole view." 

2. In the position of phrases and members. " Are these designs which any 
man who is boni a Briton, in any circumstances, m any situation, ought to be 
ashamed or afi'aid to avow ?" Corrected : " Are these designs which any 
man who is born a Briton, ought to be ashamed or afraid, in any circumstamr 
ces, in any situation, to avow ?" 

3. In the position of pronouns. The reference of a pronoun to its noun, 
should always be so clear that we cannot possibly mistake it : otherwise the 
noun ought to be repeated. " It is folly to pretend to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of life, by heaping up treasures, which nothing can protect us 
against but the good providence of our Heavenly Father." Which, in this 
sentence, grammatically refers to treasures ; and this would convert the 
whole period into nonsense. The sentence should have been thus construct- 
ed, '' It is folly to pretend, by heapmg up treasures, to arm ourselves against 
the accidents of life, against tohich nothing can protect us but the good provi- 
dence of our Heavenly Father." 

Strength. By the strength of a sentence is meant such an 
arrangement of its several words and members, as exhibits the 
sense to the best advantage, and gives every word and member 
its due weight and force. 

1. The first rule for promoting the sti'ength of a sentence, is, to take from 
it all redundant words and members. Whatever can be easily supplied in the 
mind, should generally be omitted ; thus, *' Content with deserving a tidumph, 
he refused the honor of it," is better than to say, " Being content vsdth de- 
serving a triumph," &c. " They returned back again to the same city from 
whence they cams forth." If we expunge from this short sentence five 
words which are mer^ expletives, it wdll be much more neat and forcible 

19 



214 RHETORIC. 

thus, '* They returned to the city whence they came." But v/e should be 
cautious of pruning so closely as to give a hardness and dryness to the style. 
Some leaves must be left to shelter and adorn the fruit. 

2. Particular attention to the use of copulatives, relatives, and all the par^ 
tides employed for transition and connexion, is required. In compositions of 
an elevated character, the relative should generally be inserted. An injudi- 
cious repetition of and enfeebles style ; but when enumerating objects which 
vre wish to have appear as distinct from each other as possible, it may be 
repeated with peculiar advantage ; thus, " Such a man may fall a victim to 
power ; but truth, arid reason, and liberty, would fall with him." 

3. Dispose of the capital word or words i7i that part of the sentence in which 
they will make the most striking impression. 

4. Cause the members of a sentence to go on rising in their irnportance one 
ahoTS another. In a sentence of two members, the longer should generally 
be the concluding one. 

5. Avoid concluding a sentence with an adverb, a preposition, or any incon- 
siderable word, unless it he emphatical. 

6. Where two things are compared or contrasted with each other y a resem- 
blance in the language and construction should be observed. 



Figures of Speech may be described as that language which 
is prompted either by the imagination, or by the passions. They 
generally imply some departure from simplicity of expression ; 
and exhibit ideas in a manner more vivid and impressive, than 
could be done by plain language. Figures have been commonly 
divided into two great classes ; Figures of Woi^ds, and Figures 
of Thought. 

Figures of Words are called Tropes, and consist in a word's 
being employed to signify something that is different from its ori- 
ginal meaning ; so that by altering the word, we destroy the figure. 

When we say of a person, that he has a fine taste in wmes, the word taste 
is used in its common, literal sense ; but when we say, he has a fine taste for 
painting, poetry, or music, we use the word figuratively. " A good man 
ergoys comfort in the midst ot adversity," is simple language ; but when it 
is said, '^ To the upright there ariseth light in darkness,''^ the same sentiment 
is expressed in a figurative style, light is put in the place of comfort, and 
darkness is used to suggest the idea of adversity 

The following are the most important figures : 

1. A Metaphor is founded on the resemblance which one ob- 
ject bears to another; or, it is a comparison in an abridged form. 

When I say of some great minister, '* That he upholds the state like a 
pillar w^hich supports the weight of a whole edifice," I fairly make a com- 
parison ; but when I say of such a minister, ^' That he is the pillar of state," 
the word pillar becomes a metaphor. In the latter construction, the com 
parison between the minister and a pillar, is made in the mind ; but it is ex- 
pressed without any of the words that denote comparison. 

Metaphors abound in all writings. In the scriptures they may be found 
in vast variety. Thus, our blessed Lord is called a vino, a lamb, a lion. Sic 



FIGURES OF SPEECH. 215 

and men. according to their different dispositions, are styled wolves, sheep, 
dogs, serpents, vipers, &c. 

Washington Irving, in speaking of the degraded state of the American 
xlborigines who linger on the borders of the '' white settlements," employs 
the following beautiful metaphor : '^ The proud pillar of their mdependence 
has been shalcen down, and the whole xaoYaX fabric lies m nims." 

2. An Allegory may be regarded as a metaphor continued ; 
or, it is several metaphors so connected together in sense, as fre- 
quently to form a kind of parable or fable. It differs from a sin- 
gle metaphor, in the same manner that a cluster on the vine differs 
from a single grape. 

The following is a fine example of an allegoiy, taken from the 60th psalm ; 
wherein the people of Israel are represented under the image of a vine : 
*' Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt : thou hast cast out the heathen and 
planted it. Thou preparedst room before it ; and didst cause it to take deep 
root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered with the shadow of it ; 
and the boughs thereof were like the goodly cedars. She sent out her boughs 
into the sea, and her branches into the river.'' 

3. A Simile or Comparison is when the resemblance between 
two objects, whether real or imaginary, is expressed in form. 

Thus, we use a simile, when we say, " The actions of princes are like 
those great rivers, the course of v.hich eveiy one beholds, but their springs 
tiave been seen by few." " As the mountains are round about Jeiiisalem, 
80 the Lord is round about his people." *' The music of Caryl was like the 
memory of joys that are past, pleasant and mournful to the soul." " Our 
Indians are like those wild plants which thrive best in the shade, but which 
wither when exposed to the influence of the sun." 

^' The Ass)Tdan came down, like the wolf on the fold, 
And his cohorts were gleaming with purple and gold ; 
And the sheen of their spears v/as like stars on the sea 
When the blue wave rolls nightly on deep Galilee." 

4. A Metonymy is where the cause is put for the elleei^ or the 
effect for the cause ; the container for the thing contained ; or 
the sign for the thing signified. 

When we say, " They read Milton,''^ the cause is put for the effect, mean- 
ing "Milton's worhs^ " Gray hairs should be respected;" here the effect 
is put for the cause ; meaning by " gray hairs," old age, which produces gray 
hairs. In the phrase, " The kettle boils," the container is substituted for the 
thing contained. ^* He addressed the chair ;" that is, the person m the chair. 

5. A Synecdoche or Comprehension. When the whole is 
put for a part, or a part for the whole ; a genus for a species, or 
a species for a genus ;" in general, when any thing less, or any 
ihing more, is put for the precise object meant, the figure is called 
a Synecdoche. 

Thus, " A fleet of twenty saily instead of, ships." '' The horse is a noble 
animal ;" " The dog is a faithful creature :" here an indi^^dual is put for the 
'.-pecies. We sometimes use the " head" for the person, and the ' waves" for 
the sea. In like manner, an attiibute maybe put for a subject ; as, " Vt>uth" 
fir the young, the *' deep * for the sea. 



216 RHETORIC. 

6. Personification or Prosopopceia is that figure by which 
we attribute life and action to inanimate objects. When we say, 
" The ground thirsts for zain," or, " the earth smiles with plenty," 
when we speak of "ambition^s being restless,'^ or, *^a disease's 
being deceitful ;^^ such expressions show the facility, with which 
the mind can accommodate the properties of living creatures to 
things that are inanimate. 

The following are fine examples of this figure : 
'^ Cheer'd with the grateful smell, old Ocean smiles i''^ 
" The wilderaess and the solitaiy place shall be glad for them ; and the 
desert shall rejoice and blossom as the rose." 

7. An Apostrophe is an address to some person, either absent 
or dead, as if he were present and listening to us. The address 
is frequently made to a personified object ; as, " Death is swal- 
lowed up in victory. O death ! where is thy sting ? O grave f 
where is thy victory ?" 

" Weep on the rocks of ^oaring ^dnds, O maid of Inistore ; bend thy fair 
head over the waves, thou fairer than the ghost of the hills, wheu it movea 
in a sun-beam at noon over the silence of Morven." 

8. Antithesis. Comparison is founded on the resemblance, 
antithesis, on the contrast or opposition, of two objects. 

Example. *' If you wish to enrich a person, study not to increase his 
stores, but to dim,inish his desiresJ'^ 

9. Hyperbole or Exaggeration consists in magnifying an 
object beyond its natural bounds. " As swifl as the wind ; as 
white as the snow ; as slow as a snail ;" and the like, are ex- 
travagant hyperboles. 

** I saw their chief, tall as a rock of ice ; his spear, the blasted fir ; his 
shield, the rising moon ; he sat on the shore, like a cloud of mist on the hills." 

10. Vision is produced, when, in relating something that is 
past, we use the present tense, and describe it as actually passing 
before our eyes. 

11. Interrogation. The literal use of an interrogation, is to 
ask a question ; but when men are strongly moved, whatever 
they would affirm or deny with great earnestness, they naturally 
put in the form of a question. 

Thus Balaam expressed himself to Balak : " The Lord is not man, that he 
should lie, nor the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he said it ? and 
shall he not do it ? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not make it good ?" 
" Hast thou an arm like God ? or canst thou thunder with a voice like him ?" 

i2. Exclamations are the effect of strong emotions, such as 
surprise, admiration, joy, grief, and the like. 

** O that I had in the wilderness a lodging place of way-faring men ?** " 
that I had wings like a dove ! for then would I fly away, and be at rest !" 

13. Irony is expressing ourselves in a manner contrary toouf 
thoughts ; not with a view to deceive, but to add force to ou) 



BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 21 7 

remarks. We can reprove one for his negligence, by saying, " You 
have taken great care, indeed." 

The prophet Elijah adopted this figure, when he challenged the priests of 
Baal to prove the truth of their deity. " He mocked them, and said, Cry- 
aloud, for he is a god : either he is talking, or he is pursuing, or he is on a 
journey, or, peradventure, he sleepeth, and must be waked." 

14. Amplification or Climax consists in heightening all the 
circumstances of an object or action, which we desire to place in 
a strong light, 

Cicero gives a lively instance of this figure, when he says " It is a crime to 
put a Roman citizen in bonds: it is the height of guilt to scourge him; Uttle 
less than parricide to put him to death : what name, then, shall I give to the 
a;Ct of crucifying him ?" 



BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY.^ 

Beauty, in its native signification, is properly appropriated to 
objects of sight only ; for though objects of the other senses, such as 
the sounds of musical instruments, or the smoothness and softness 
of surfaces, may be agreeable yet they cannot be called beautiful. 

The beauty of visible objects is of two kinds ; first, intrinsic 
beauty, or that which is discovered in a single object, without re- 
lation to any other ; and secondly, relative beauty, or that whieli 
is founded on the difi'erent relations of objects. Intrinsic beauty 
is purely an object of sense ; for it is evident that to perceive the 
beauty of a spreading oak, or of a flowing river, nothing more is 
required than a simple act of vision. The perception of relative 
beauty is, however, accompanied with an act of the understanding 
and reflection ; for of a fine instrument, or an elegant machine, 
we do not perceive the relative beauty until we become acquainted 
with its use and destination. Intrinic beauty, it will thus appear, 
is ultimate ; while relative beauty must depend upon the adapta- 
tion of some means to an important end or purpose. 

Intrinsic and relative beauty agree in the important circumstance, 
that they are both equally perceived to belong to the object. This 
is evident with respect to the former ; but with respect to the lat- 
ter it will not be so readily admitted. For instance, the utility of 
the piough, may make it an object of admiration ; but then it 
would not seem to follow that utility should make that instrument 
appear beautiful. The beauty of effect is, however, by an easy 
transition of ideas, transferred to the cause, and is perceived to be 
one principle of the cause itself. Thus, a subject destitute of in- 

* From Prof. A. Mills' ^^ Outlines of Rhetoric and Belks-Leitres,^^ hy pei' 
mission of the author. 

10 



218 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 

trinsic beauty, may appear beautiful from utility ; as a surgical in- 
strument, or a theory of dropsies or fevers. When intrinsic and 
relative beauty unite in the same object, as in the human form 
and face, the beauty then becomes exquisite. 

From these general remarks, we pass to notice, more particu- 
larly, the several classes of objects in which beauty most remark- 
ably appears ; and point out, as far as possible, the separate prin- 
ciples of beauty in each of them. With this view, we shall notice 
first the beauty of simplicity ; secondly, the beauty of color ; 
thirdly, the beauty of figure ; fourthly, the beauty of motion ; 
fifthly, the beauty of the human countenance ; and lastly, beauty, 
as applied to writing and discourse. 

In all the works of nature simplicity forms a very important 
part. It also equally distinguishes works of art ; and hence profuse 
ornament, in painting, in gardening, in architecture, and also in 
dress, manners, and language, exhibit a low and corrupt taste. It 
is on this principle that no single quality in a piece of mechanism 
more strongly recommends it than simplicity ; not because that 
when this quality prevails it will better answer the purpose for 
which it is intended, but simply because it is then, in itself, more 
beautiful. So also simplicity in behavior and manners, in contrast 
with the artificial manners of the present period, has an enchant- 
ing eff'ect, and never fails to gain our afi'ection and esteem. The 
beauty of general theorems, from the facility with which they can 
be applied to various cases, arises from this same principle ; and 
the general laws of motion, boundless as they are in their opera- 
tions, derive their peculiar interest and beauty from their great 
simplicity. 

Color, after simplicity itself, afibrds, perhaps, the most striking 
instance of beauty. The only cause for this quality in objects is, 
perhaps, the structure of the eye, which inclines us to receive cer- 
tain modifications of the rays of light with more pleasure than 
others. Association of ideas has, probably, some influence. Thus, 
green may appear more beautiful by being connected in our ideas 
with rural scenes and prospects ; white, with innocence ; and blue, 
with the serenity of the sky. Independent of associations of 
this kind, all that we can further observe respecting colors is, that 
those chosen for their beauty are, generally, delicate, rather than 
glaring. Such are the feathers of several kinds of birds, the 
leaves of flowers, and the ^ne variations of colors exhibited by the 
sky at the rising and setting of the sun. 

Figure opens to us forms of beauty more complex and diversi- 
fied than color. Here regularity presents itself as the first source 
of beauty. By a regular figure we mean one which we perceive 



BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY, 219 

to be formed according to some certain rule. Thus, a circle, a 
square, or a triangle, pleases the eye by its regularity, as a beau- 
tiful figure ; but still, a certain graceful variety is perceiv^ed to be 
a much more powerful principle of beauty than regularity. Regu- 
larity appears beautiful, chieiiy, because it suggests the ideas of 
fitness, propriety, and use ; but Nature, who is, doubtless, the most 
graceful artist, has, in all her ornamental works, pursued variety 
with an apparent neglect of regularity. 

As an illustration of these remarks we observe that cabinets, 
doors and w^indows, are made after a regular form, in cubes and 
parallelograms, with exact proportion of parts ; and they please 
the eye, because, being works of utility, they are by such figures 
the better suited to the ends for which they were designed. But 
plants, flowers, and leaves, are full of variety and diversity. A 
straight canal is an insipid figure, in comparison with a meander- 
ing river. Cones and pyramids are beautiful ; but trees growing 
in their natural wildness are much more beautiful than when 
trimmed into pyramids and cones. The apartments of a house 
must be regular in their disposition, for the convenience of its in- 
habitants ; but a garden, which is designed merely for beauty, 
would be simply disgusting, if it had as much uniformity and 
order in its parts as a dwelling-house. 

Motion, the next source of beauty, is in itself pleasing; and 
bodies in motion are uniformly preferred to those at rest. It is, 
however, to be remarked that gentle motion only is beautiful ; such 
ap a bird gliding through the air ; or the smooth running of a 
limpid stream. It must also be observed, that motion in a straight 
line is not so beautiful as in a waving direction; and that motion 
upwards is more beautiful than motion downwards. The easy 
curling motion of flame and smoke is peculiarly beautiful. 

In some objects, color, figure, and motion all unite; and when 
this union occurs, it renders the beauty greater and more complex. 
Thus, in flowers, trees, and animals, we often perceive the delicacy 
of color, the gracefulness of motion, and sometimes ease of motion. 
The most complete assen^blage of beautiful objects that can any 
where be found, is presented by a rich natural landscape, diversi- 
fied with fields in verdure, scattered trees and flowers, running 
water and grazing animals. If to these be joined some of the 
productions of art, such as an arched bridge over a river, smoke 
rising from cottages in the midst of trees, and the distant view of 
a fine building, we then enjoy, in the highest perfection, that gay, 
cheerful, and placid sensation, which always accompanies the sen- 
sation of the beautiful. 

The beauty of the human countenance is more complex than 



220 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 

any tliat we have yet noticed. It includes the beauty of color, 
arising from the delicate shades of the complexion, and the beauty 
of figure, arising from the lines which form the delicate features 
of the face. But the principal beauty of the countenance depends 
upon a certain mysterious expression which it conveys of the 
qualities of the mind ; such as sprightliness, candor, benevolence, 
sensibility, good sense, or good humor. How it happens that a 
certain conformation of features is connected in our idea with 
certain moral qualities, we are not now to enquire ; but the fact 
is certain, that what gives the human countenance its most dis- 
tinguishing beauty, is its expression, or the image which it exhib- 
its of internal moral qualities. 

It may also be remarked, that there are certain qualities of the 
mind, which, whether expressed in the countenance, or by words 
or actions, always raise in us a feeling similar to that of beauty. 
These qualities are chiefly of the social virtues, and such as are 
of the softer and gentler kind ; as compassion, mildness, friendship, 
and generosity. They excite in us a sensation of pleasure so 
nearly allied to that excitetl by beautiful external objects, that, 
though of a more dignified nature, it may without impropriety, be 
classed under the same head. 

Beauty, as applied to writing and discourse, still remains to be 
noticed. In its proper and appropriate sense, beauty of writing 
characterizes a particular manner, and signifies a certain grace and 
amenity in the turn either of the style or sentiment, for which 
some authors have been peculiarly distinguished. This manner 
of writing raises in the mind an emotion of the gentle, placid 
kind, similar to that which is raised by the contemplation of beau- 
tiful objects in nature. It neither lifts the mind very high, nor 
agitates it very deeply ; but it diffuses over the imagination an 
agreeable and pleasing serenity. Addison and Irving are writers 
that peculiarly belong to this class, and are, perhaps, the most 
conspicuous examples that our literature presents. 

The beautiful, and the grand or sublime, in external objects, 
are not always separated by very distinct boundaries, but frequently 
flow into each other as light and shade. Thus, a smooth running 
stream is one of the most beautiful objects in nature ; but as it 
gradually swells into a great river, the beautiful is insensibly lost 
in the grand. Should the same river flow on till it becomes a 
torrent and precipitates itself by cataract, into the ocean, the grand 
would be lost in the sublime. 

The simplest form of external grandeur appears in the vast and 
boundless prospects presented to us by nature ; such as wide and 
extended plains, to which the eye can see no limit ; the firmament 



BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 221 

of heaven, or the boundless expanse of the ocean. All vastness 
produces an impression of grandeur ; but it should be remarked, 
that space extended in length, does not make so strong an im- 
pression as in height or depth. Though a boundless plain be a 
grand object, yet a high mountain, to which we look up, or an 
awful precipice or tower, whence we look down on the objects 
which lie below, is still more so. The excessive grandeur of the 
firmament arises from its height, joined to its boundless extent, 
and that of the ocean, not from its extent alone, but from its per- 
petual motion and irresistible force. Wherever space is concerned, 
it is evident that amplitude, or greatness of extent, in one dimen- 
sion or other, is necessary to grandeur. If we remove all bounds, 
accordingly, from any object, we immediately render it grand ; 
and hence, infinite space, endless numbers, and eternal duration, 
fill the mind with great ideas. 

Of sublime ideas, the most copious source is to be found in the 
exertion of great power and force.' Hence, the grandeur of earth- 
quakes and burning mountains ; of great conflagrations ; of the 
boisterous ocean ; of the tempestuous storm ; of thunder and light- 
ning; and of all the uncommon violence of the elements, A 
stream, as we before observed, which glides along gently within 
its banks, is a beautiful object; but when it precipitates itself with 
the impetuosity and noise of a torrent, it immediately becomes a 
sublime one. A race horse is beheld with pleasure, but it is the 
war horse, "whose neck is clothed with thunder," that carries 
with it the idea of sublimity. The engagement of two great ar- 
mies, as it is the highest exertion of human power, combines a 
variety of sources of the sublime; and has, accordingly, been 
always considered one of the most striking and magnificent spec- 
tacles that can be either presented to the eye, or exhibited to the 
imagination. 

It may farther be observed that all ideas of the solemn and 
awful kind, and even bordering on the terrible, tend greatly to 
assist the sublime ; such as darkness, solitude, and. silence. The 
firmament, v/hen filled with stars scattered in such vast numbers, 
and with such magnificent profusion, strikes the imagination with 
a more awful grandeur, than when we view it enlightened by all 
the splendor of the sun. The deep sound of a great bell, or the 
striking of a great clock, is, at any time, grand ; but heard amid 
the silence and stillness of the night, they become doubly so. 
Darkness is very commonly applied for adding sublimity to all our 
ideas of the Deity. "He maketh darkness his pavilion; he 
dwellcth in the thick clouds." Milton has very happily expressed 
the same idea in the following passage : 



222 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY, 

''How oft amidst 
Thick clouds and dark, does Heaven's all-ruling Sire 
Choose to reside ; his glory unobscured, 
And with the majesty of darkness round 
Circles his throne." 

Obscurity, we may farther remark, is also favorable to the sub- 
lime. Though it renders the object indistinct, yet the impression 
may be grand ; for as Burke has ingeniously observed, it is one 
thing to make an idea clear, and another to make it affecting to 
the imagination. Thus, almost all the descriptions given to us of 
the appearances of supernatural beings, carry some sublimity in 
them, though the conceptions which they afford us be confused 
and indistinct. Their sublimity arises from the ideas which they 
always convey, of superior force and might, joined with an awful 
obscurity. No ideas it is evident, are so sublime as those connect- 
ed with the Supreme Being — ^the most unknown, but the greatest 
of all objects — the infinity of whose nature, and the eternity of 
whose duration, joined with the omnipotence of his power, though 
they surpass our conceptions, yet exalt them to the highest degree. 

Disorder, also, is not only very favorable to the sublime, but it 
offcen heightens it. Things that are strictly regular and methodi- 
cal, are rarely sublime, because we see the limits on every side, 
and feel ourselves confined, there being no room for the mind to 
exert any great effort. On this principle a great mass of rocks 
thrown together by the hand of nature with wildness and confu- 
sion, strikes the mind with more sublimity than if they were ad- 
justed to one another by the most accurate symmetry. It is pos- 
sible, however, to reach the grand in works of art ; especially 
where the materials of which the structure is reared are of vast 
dimensions, and the time when they were brought together carries 
us back to remote antiquity. Such a structure as Stone-henge on 
Salisbury plain, in England, exemplifies this remark. 

The moral or sentimental sublime arises from certain exertions 
of the human mind, or certain affections, or actions of our fellow- 
creatures. These will be found chiefly of that class, which comes 
under the name of magnanimty or heroism, and, filling the mind 
with admiration, and elevating it above itself, produce an effect 
extremely similar to the effect which is produced by the view of 
grand objects in nature. Wherever in some critical and danger- 
ous situation, we behold a man uncommonly intrepid, and resting 
upon himself, superior to passion and fear, animated by some great 
principle to the contempt of popular opinion, of selfish interest, 
of dangers or of death ; we are struck with a sense of the sublime. 
Thus Porus, a gallant king of India, when taken prisoner by Alex- 



BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 223 

ander, and brought into the presence of the conqueror, being 
asked how he wished to be treated, replied, " Like a king ;" and 
Ca3sar, chiding the pilot who was afraid to set out with him in a 
storm to cross the Adriatic sea, " Why do you fear ? You bear 
the fortunes of Caesar ;" are good examples of the moral or senti- 
mental sublime. 

Various theories have been formed to ascertain whether we are 
able to discover some one distinct quality, in which all the difter- 
ent objects that produce the sublime coincide. Some have sup- 
posed that amplitude, or great extent, joined with simplicity, is 
either immediately, or remotely, the fundamental quality of what- 
ever is sublime ; but we have seen that amplitude is confined to 
one species of sublime objects only, and cannot, with any pro- 
priety, be applied to them all. 

Burke considered terror the great source of the sublime ; and 
argues, very ingeniously, that no objects have this character, but 
such as produce impressions of pain and danger. If we regard 
sublimity in the abstract, this may be strictly true ; for it is evi- 
dent that many terrible objects are highly sublime, and that sub- 
limity does not, therefore, refuse an alliance with the idea of dan- 
ger. Grandeur, however, bears a very different relation to terror 
from sublimity ; and here, perhaps, the distinction between the 
attributes of sublimity and grandeur becomes more manifest than 
in any other case. While terror seems to pervade the sublime, in 
many grand objects there is not the smallest degree of it ; as in 
the magnificent prospect of wide extended plains, and the starry 
firmament ; and also in many of those moral dispositions and sen- 
timents which we contemplate with the highest admiration. 

Alison, on the contrary, in direct opposition to the theory of 
Burke, discards, altogether, the idea of innate sublimity; and 
argues that whereever this quality is found, its existence is to be 
attributed to association : while Lord Kame, in his investigation 
of the subject, seems to cover the whole ground when he distrib- 
utes it into intrinsic and relative sublimity. Perhaps, however, 
mighty force or power, whether attended with terror or not, 
whether employed in protecting or alarming us, has a better title 
than anything else that has fallen under our observation, to be 
considered the fundamental quality of the sublime ; as there is no 
sublime object into which the idea of strength and force do not, 
either directly or indirectly, enter. 

Sublimity in composition signifies such a description of objects, 
or exhibition of sentiments which are sublime in themselves, as 
shall give us a strong impression of them. Its foundation must 
always be laid in the nature of the object described ; for unless it 



224 BEAUTY AND SUBLIMITY. 

be sucli an object tbat, if exbibited to us in reality, would raise in 
us ideas of an elevating, awful, or magnificent kind, the descrip- 
tion, however well drawn, is not entitled to be called sublime. 
This necessarily excludes all objects tiiat are merely beautiful, gay, 
or elegant. 

We may also remark tliat tlie object must not only be in itself 
sublime, but it must be set before us in such a light as shall give 
us a full and clear impression of it ; it must be described with 
strength, with consciseness, and simplicity. Such description must 
depend, chiefly, upon the lively impression that the poet or orator 
has of the subject which he exhibits; and upon his being deeply 
aftected and warmed by the sublime idea which he would convey. 
If his own feelings are languid he cannot inspire us with any 
strong emotion. 

It is, generally speaking, amoDg the most ancient authors that 
we are to look for the most striking instances of the sublime. The 
early ages of the world and the rude uncultivated state of society, 
appear to have been peculiarly favorable to the strong emotions of 
sublimity. The genius of mankind was then very prone to ad- 
miration and astonishment. Meeting continually with new and 
strange objects, their imagination was kept glowing, and their 
passions were raised to the utmost. They thought and expressed 
themselves boldly, and without restraint. In the progress of so- 
ciety, the genius and manners of men have undergone a change 
more favorable to accuracy than to strength or sublimity. 

The sacred Scriptures, of all writings, either ancient or modern, 
afford the highest instances of the sublime. The descriptions of 
the Deity in them, are wonderfully noble, both from the greatness 
of the object, and from the ma^nner of representing it. Nothing 
could surpass the assem.blage of awful and sublime ideas presented 
to us in that passage in the eighteenth Psalm, in which the ap- 
pearance of the Almighty is thus described : " In my distress I 
called upon the Lord : He heard my voice out of His temple, and 
my cry came before Him. Then, the earth shook and trembled ; 
the foundations also of the hills were moved ; because he was 
wroth. He bov/ed the heavens and came down, and darkness was 
under His feet ; and He did ride upon a cherub, and did fly ; yea. 
He did fly upon the wings of the wind. He made darkness His 
secret place ; His pavilion round about Him were dark v/aters, and 
thick clouds of the sky." 

Conciseness and simplicity are essential to sublime writing. 
Conciseness is properly opposed to superfluous expressions, and 
simplicity, to studied and profuse ornament. The reasons why a 
defect in either is peculiarly hurtful to the sublime is, that the 



KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 225 

emotion excited in the mind by some great or noble object, raises 
it altogether above its common tone. A sort of enthusiasm is 
produced which is extremely agreeable while it lasts ; but from 
which the mind is tending every moment to fall into its ordinary 
state. When a writer, therefore, is attempting to bring us into 
this state, if he multiplies words unnecessarily ; if he decks the 
sublime objects on all sides with glittering ornaments ; or if he 
throws in any one decoration which falls, in the least, below the 
principal image, he at once alters the key ; he relaxes the tension 
of the mind ; emaciates the strength of the feeling ; and though 
the beautiful may remain, the sublime is gone. 



KEY. 

Corrections of the False Syntax arranged under the Rules and 

Notes. 

Rule 4. Frequent commission of sin hardens men in it. Great pains have 
been taken, &c. — is seldom found. The sincere are, &c. — is happy. What 
avail, &c. — Disappointments sink — the renewal of hope gives, &c. — is with- 
out limit, has been conferred upon us. — Thou canst not heal — but thou mayst 
do, &c. — consists the happiness, &c.— Who touchedst, or didst touch Isaiah's 
hallowed lips with fire. 

■Note 1. And wilt thou never be to Heaven resigned ? — And who had great 
abilities, &g. 

Note 2. Are peace and honor. — was controversy. 

Rule 7. Them that you visited. — him that was mentioned. — he who 
preached repentance, &c. — they who died. — he who succeeded. 

Rule 8. Time and tide waitj &c. — remove mountains. — are both uncer- 
tain. — dwell with, (fee. — affect the mind, &c. — What signify the counsel and 
care, &c. — are now perished. — Why are whiteness and coldness, &c. — ^bind 
them continually, &c. — render their possesser, &c. — There are error and dis- 
crepance — which show, Slc. 

Rule 9. Is the same in idea. — is in the porphyry. — is remarkable, &c.— 
which moves merely as it is moved. — affects us, &c. — Man's happiness or 
misery is, in a great measure, <fec. — for it may be, <fec. — was blameworthy. 

Rule 10. The nation is powerful. — The fleet was seen, &c. — The church 
has, &x. — is, or ought to be, the object, Slc. — it is feeble. 

Rule 11. My people do, <&c. — The multitude esLgerlj pursue pleasure as 
their, &c.- — were divided in their sentiments, and they have referred, (fee.— 
The people rejoice — give them sorrow. 

Rule 12. Homer^s works are, &c. — Asa^s heart James HarVs book. 

Note 1. It was the men, women, and children's lot, (fee. or. It was the lot 
of the men, women, and children. — Peter, John, and Andrew's, (fee. 

Note 2. This is Campbell the poet's production ; or, The production of 
Campbell, 4*c«-*— The silk was purchased at Brown's the mercer and haber^ 
dasher. 

Note 4. The pupiVs composing, (fee. — rule's being observed. — of the presi- 
dent's neglecting to lay it before the council. 

Rule 13. Of his audience. — put it on Jacob. — sprinkle the7n^-^iA they 
shall, &c.— of his reputation. 



22(j KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 

Note. You itere blamed ; you icere worthy. — where were yon ?— hoY\' far 
were you? 

Rule 14. Who hast been, &c. — who is the sixth ^^.^^ has lost hU life by 
tbis means. 

Who all my sense confine dst ; or, didst confine. 

Note. And who broup^htest him forth out of Ur. 

Rule 15. Who shall be sent, &c. — This is the man who, &c. 

Rule 16. They to whom much is given, &c. — with whom you associate, 
Slg. — luhom I greatly respect, Szc. — whom we ought to love, and to whom, ,\c. 
— They ichom conscience, ^c. — With tchom did you walk? — Whom did yon 
see ? — To whom did you give the book ? 

Rule 17. Who gave John those books? We. — ^.iw who Uves in Pearl- 
etreet — My brother and he. — She and /. 

Rule 18 : Note 2. Thirty tuns. — twenty feet — one hundred /firi^oms. 

Note 6. He bought a pair of new shoes — piece oi elegant furniture. — piiir 
oi fine horses — tract of poor land. 

Note 7. Are still more difficult to he comprehended. — ^most dotdjfful^ or 
precarious way, 8lg. — This model comes nearer perfection than any 7, &c. 

Rtjle 19 : Note. That sort. — these two hoUrs. — This kmd, &c. — He saw 
one person, or more than one, enter the garden. 

Note 2. Better than himself. --4s so small. — his station maybe, e.sboimd by 
the laws. 

Note 3. On each side, &c. — took each his censer. 

Rule 20. Whom did they, &c. — They tchom opulence, — whom luxury, &x;. 
— Him and them we know, &c. — Her that is negligent, &€.— my brother and 
me, ^c. — Whom did they send, &c. — Them whom he, &c. 

Rule 21. It is /. — If I were he. — it is he, indeed. — Wham do you, &lc. — 
Who do men say, &c. — and who say ye, &c. — whom do you imagine it to 
have been? — it was /; but you knew that it was he. 

Rule 25. Bid him come. — durst not do it. — Hear him read, ^c. — makes 
us approve and reject, SfC. — better to live — than to outlive, &c. — to wrestle. 

Rule 26: Note. The taking of pains: or, without taking pains, &c- — 
The changing of times, — the removing and setting up of kings. 

Rule 28 : Note 3. He did me — I had icritten — he came home. — hefallm 
my cousin — he vs^ould have gone. — already r^5e7^. — \^ begun. — is spoken. — 
would have wHtten — had they written, S^-c. 

Rule 29 : Note 1. It cannot, therefore, be, &c. — he was not often pleas- 
ing. — should never be separated. — We may live happily, S^-c. 

Rule 30 : Note. I don't knov^ any thi?ig ; or, I knoic nothing, &c. — I did 
not see anybody; or, I saw nobody, ^c. — Nothing ever affects her. — and 
take no shape or semblance, &c. — There can be nothing, &c. — Neither pre- 
cept nor discipline is so forcible as example. 

Rule 31. For himself. — among themselves. — tvith whom he is, 8lc. — With 
wlwm did, &c. — From whom did you receive instruction ? 

Rule 33. My brother and he, &c. — You and 7, S,-c. He and I — John and 
he, ^'C. — Between you and me, ^c. 

Rule 34. And entreat me, 8^c. — and acting differently, Sj-c. 

Note 1. But he may return — but he will ^vrite no more. 

Note 2. UnlesB it rain. — If he acquire riches, 4*c. 

Rule 35. Then 7. — as well as he, than they. — but he. — but he and 7. — but 
them who had gosse astray. 

Promisc7ious E-samples. — Him w^ho is from eternity, S^-c. — depends all the 
happmess, — which exists, <^c. — the enemies whom, Sf-c. — Is it 7 or he whom 
y jr, /oquested ? — Though great ?iave been, — sincerely acknowledge. — There 
was, in the metropolis. — exercismg our memories. — was consumed. — Afiiu- 
««ce Tn-'yy give — \ut it wil not, — of th:S ^voild often choke. — Them that hon- 



KEY TO THE EXERCISES. 227 

dr, — and they that despise. — -I intended to call last week. — the fields look 
fresh and gay. — very neatly .finely woven paper.— where I saw Gen. Andrew 
Jackson, him who. — Take the first two, — last three. — thirty feet high. — a 
union, — a hypothesis. — I have seen him to whom you wrote, he ^vollld have 
cmne back, or retui-ned. — understands the nature, — he rejects. — If thou study y 
—thou wilt become. — is not properly attended to. — He knew. — therefore, to 
have done it. — than the title. — very independently. — duty to do. — my friend^ & 
entering. — is the best specimen, or it comes nearer perfection than any, Spc. — 
blow them, will go, &c. — Each of those two authors has his merit. — Reason a 
whole, — lie in. — strikes the mind, — than if the parts had been adjusted, — with 
perfect symmetry. 

Satire does not carry in it. — composes the triangle. — persons' opportunities 
were ever. — It has been reported. — should never be. — situation in which. — is 
thoroughly versed in his. — are the soul, — follows little. — An army presents. 
— are the duties of a christian. — happier than he. — always have incliiied, and 
tchich always will incline him to offend. — which require great. — Them that 
honor me, will I. — has opinions peculiar to itself. — that it may be said he 
attained monarchical. — hast pennitted, — wilt deliver.^ — teas foraierly propa- 
gated. — the measure isy — mi worthy your. — were faithless. — PsSXex\had visited. 
— nor shall I, consent. — Yesterday I intended to walk out, but was. — make 
or are tliirteen, — leave three. — If he go, — make the eighth time that he will 
have visited. — is nobler. — was possessed, or that ever can be. — one great 
edifice^ — smaller ones. — honesty is. — it to be. — loill follow me, — I shall dwelL 
— is gone astray.— he could not have done— feeling a propensity. 



FUMCT'UATIHW. 

COMxMA. 
Corrections of the Exercises in Punctuation, 

RULE 1. Idleness is the great fomenter of all corruptions in the imraan 
heart. The friend of order has made half his way to virtue. All finery is a 
sign of littleness. 

RULE 2. The indulgence of a harsh disposition, is the introduction to 
future misery. To be totally mdifferent to praise or censure, is a real defect 
in character. The intermixture of evil in human society, serves to exercise 
the suffering graces and virtues of the good. 

RULE 3. Charity, like the sun, brightens al! its Dbjects. Gentleness is, 
in tnith, the great avenue to mutual enjoyment. You, too, have your fail 
higs. Humility and knowledge, vdth poor apparel, excel pride and ignor 
auce, mider costly attire. The best men often experience aisappointment's 
Ad\ace should be seasonably administered. No assumed behavior can alway. 
hide the real character. 

RULE 4. Lord, thou hast been o?'? dwelling place in all generations 
Continue, my dear child, to make viitue thy chief study. Canst thou ex 
pect, thou betrayer of innocence, to escape the hand of vengeance ? Death, 
the king of terrors, chose a prime minister. Hope, the balm of life, sooths 
us under every misfortune. Confuckis, the great Chinese philosopher, was 
eminently good, as well as wise. The pati-iarch Joseph is an illustrious 
example of true piety. 

RULE 5. Peace of mind being secured, we may smile at misfortune. To 
enjoy present pleasure, he sacrificed his future ease and reputation. His 
talents, formed for great enterprises, could not fail of rendering him conspic- 
uous. The path of piety and virtue, pursued with a firm and constant spirit, 
v/ill assuredly lead to happiness. All mankind compose one family, assem 
bled under the eye of one common Father. 



228 KEY T0 THE EXERCISES. 

RULE 6. We have no reason to complain of the lot of man, nor of the 
mutability of the world. Sensuality contaminates the body, depresses the 
miderstanding, deadens the moral feelings of the heart, and degrades man 
from his rank in creation. 

Self-conceit, presumption, and obstinacy, blast the prospect of many a youth 
He is alternately supported by his father, his uncle, and his elder brother 
The man of virtue and honor, will be trusted, relied upon, and esteemed. 
Conscious guilt renders one mean-spirited, timorous, and base. An upright 
mind will never be at a loss to discern what is just and true, lovely, honest 
and of good report. Habits of reading, v/riting, and thinking, are the indis 
pensable qualifications of a good student. The great business of life is, to be 
employed in doing justly, loving mercy, and walking humbly with our God. 
To live soberly, righteously, and piously, comprehends the whole of om- duty. 

In our health, life, possessions, connexions, pleasures, there are causes of 
decay imperceptibly working. Deliberate slowly, execute promptly. An 
idle, trifling society, is near akin to such as is connipting. This unhappy 
person had been seriously, affectionately admonished, but in vain. 

RULE 7. How much better it is to get wisdom than gold. The friend- 
ships of the world can exist no longer than interest cements them. Eat what 
is set before you. They who excite envy, will easily incur censure. A man 
who is of a detracting spirit, will misconstrue the most innocent words that 
can be put together. Many of the evils which occasion our complaints of 
the world, are wholly imaginary. 

The gentle mind is like the smooth stream, which reflects every object in 
its just proportion, and in its fairest colors. In that unaffected civility which 
springs from a gentle mind, there is an incomparable charm. The Lord, 
whom I serve, is eternal. This, is the man we saw yesterday. 

aVLK 8. Idleness brings forward ^and nourishes many bad passions. 
True friendship wiU, at all times, avoid a rough or careless behavior. Health 
and peace, a moderate fortune, and a few friends, sum up all the undoubted 
articles of temporal felicity. Truth is fair and artless, simple and sincere, 
uniform and consistent. Intemperance destroys the strength of our bodies 
and the vigor of our minds. 

RULE 9. As a companion, he was severe and satirical ; as a friend, cap 
lious and dangerous. If the spring put forth no blossoms, in summer there 
will be no beauty, and in autumn, no fruit. So, if youth be trifled away with- 
out improvement, manhood will be contemptible, and old age, miserable. 

RULE 10. They believed he was dead. He did not know that I was 
the man. I knew she was still alive. The greatest misery is, to be con- 
demned by our own hearts. The greatest misery that we can endure, is, to 
be condemned by our own hearts. 

SEMICOLON. 

RULE 1. The path of truth is a plain and safe path ; that of falsehood is 
B perplexing maze. Heaven is the region of gentleness and friendship ; heU, 
of fierceness and animosity. As there is a worldly happiness, which God 
perceives to be no other than disguised misery ; as there are worldly honors, 
which, in his estimation, are a reproach ; so, there is a worldly wisdom, 
which, in his sight, is foolishness. 

But all subsists by elemental strife ; 
And passions are the elements of life. 

COLON. 

RULE 1. The three great enemies to tranquillitjr, are vice, superstition, 
and idleness : vice, which poisons and disturbs the mind with bad passions ; 
superstition, which fills it with imaginary terrors ; idleness, which loads it 
with tediousness and disgust. 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper process. 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 

PreservationTechnologies 

A WORLD LEADER IN PAPER PRESERVATION 

1 1 1 Thomson Park Drive 
Cranberry Township, PA 16066 
(724)779-2111 



